List of Geneology of philosophical schools and Ideas subject articles

Open Access Article

1 - An Evaluation of Fakhr al-Din Razi’s Criticisms of Ibn Sina’s Definition of Time
Mahmoud Saidiy Seyyed Mohammad Musawy

Following Aristotle, Ibn Sina maintained that time is the number of motion which is attained by the continuous movement of a moving agent over a distance. He adduced two arguments in order to demonstrate his theory: one was based on the difference between the motions of More

Following Aristotle, Ibn Sina maintained that time is the number of motion which is attained by the continuous movement of a moving agent over a distance. He adduced two arguments in order to demonstrate his theory: one was based on the difference between the motions of moving things in terms of speed, and the other was based on the divisibility of the distance of movement. In contrast, through advancing various objections, Fakhr al-Din Razi challenged this theory not only with regard to its two underlying arguments but also with respect to the theory of time being the number of motion. The present paper aims to demonstrate that Fakhr al-Din Razi’s criticisms originate in his lack of enough scrutiny of Ibn Sina’s principles, particularly regarding the opposition of non-existence and habit between motion and rest, time as necessary by the other and not necessary by itself, the difference between universal and particular times of each motion, and the existence of logical fallacy in some arguments. However, the final response to some of his criticisms are given based on the principles of the Transcendent Philosophy regarding the analytic differences between motion, time, and time as the fourth dimension of being. Manuscript profile

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2 - Historical Development and Pre-Suppositions of the Theory of the Principiality of Existence in Tusi’s Analysis
Hashem Ghorbani

The theory of the principiality of existence or quiddity lacks a systematic model in pre-Sadrian thoughts; however, it is based on certain presuppositions the discovery of which can illuminate Muslim thinkers’ approach to this problem. Khwajah Nasir al-Din Tusi has expl More

The theory of the principiality of existence or quiddity lacks a systematic model in pre-Sadrian thoughts; however, it is based on certain presuppositions the discovery of which can illuminate Muslim thinkers’ approach to this problem. Khwajah Nasir al-Din Tusi has explained his epistemological ideas regarding these presuppositions. This paper deals with some of the presuppositions underlying the principiality of existence or quiddity as presented by Tusi. Some of them are as follows: 1) the problem of the addition of existence and quiddity and its quality; 2) detecting the relationship between existence and quiddity; 3) the mind or the outside as the place of the realization of this relationship, and 4) evaluating the referents of the mentioned analysis and the realization of quiddity and existence in the outside or emphasizing the exclusive realization of one of them. Through his analyses of each of these presuppositions, Tusi adopts an approach which can represent his agreement or disagreement with the principiality of existence. Accordingly, although the theory of the principiality of existence did not occupy his mind as a problem, his epistemological presuppositions regarding existence and quiddity are consistent with it. The development of the relationship between the ideas of Tusi and Mulla Sadra can be analyzed through explaining the former’s standpoints regarding the above-mentioned presuppositions and his influence over Mulla Sadra. Manuscript profile

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3 - Incompleteness of Heidegger’s Interpretation of Platonic Truth: A Critical Review of Plato’s Doctrine of Truth
Said Binayemotlagh seyyed Majid Kamali

In his treatise of Plato’s Doctrine of Truth, by referring to Plato’s “Allegory of the Cave”, Heidegger intends to demonstrate that the meaning of truth in Platonic philosophy underwent some transformation comparing to how pre-Socratic Greeks defined it. Here, truth as More

In his treatise of Plato’s Doctrine of Truth, by referring to Plato’s “Allegory of the Cave”, Heidegger intends to demonstrate that the meaning of truth in Platonic philosophy underwent some transformation comparing to how pre-Socratic Greeks defined it. Here, truth as unhiddenness is reduced to truth as “true” and “correspondence”. The purpose of the present paper is to explain that Heidegger’s interpretation of Platonic truth does not cover all of Plato’s ideas regarding the meaning of truth. Accordingly, by referring to some of Plato’s ideas regarding, for example, “good”, “beauty”, “existence”, and “truth”, the writers have tried to disclose some of the contradictory points of Heidegger’s interpretation of the meaning of truth in Plato’s philosophy. They have also tried to demonstrate that Heidegger’s reading of Plato is reductionist in nature, and that downgrading the meaning of truth merely to the level of “true” and “correspondence”, more than being based on Plato’s documented ideas, originates in Heidegger’s will to call the whole history of Western philosophy as Western metaphysics. Manuscript profile

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4 - Philosophy and Religious law in Spinoza’s Theologico-Political Treatise: Admist Averroism and Textualism
Reza Najafzadeh

Given the Multi-cultural nature of the development of philosophical systems, it can be claimed that Baruch Benedict de Spinoza formulated his view of the problem of the possibility or impossibility of concurrence of philosophy and religion in line with the tradition of More

Given the Multi-cultural nature of the development of philosophical systems, it can be claimed that Baruch Benedict de Spinoza formulated his view of the problem of the possibility or impossibility of concurrence of philosophy and religion in line with the tradition of Latin and Jewish Averroists. A major part of his Theologico-Political Treatise is devoted to responding to this problem. Spinoza’s philosophical thoughts were influenced by several philosophical and political traditions. Inspired by the naturalist philosophers of the Renaissance period, he advocated the radical republican tradition and played a significant role in developing the radical Enlightenment heritage. In unity with such trends and while being influenced by the Protestant religious reforms tradition and having a Jewish educational background, Spinoza was continually occupied with the important problem of the possibility or impossibility of reconciling theology and philosophy or religion and rationality. This radical philosopher of the Enlightenment Period encountered holy texts in the light of the Islamic and Jewish legacies of rational thoughts. In order to provide an answer to this problem, he openly dealt with the rationalist and textualist trends of Judaism. Given the huge contribution of Islamic rational thoughts to the rise of the Middle Age Jewish philosophy, his thoughts also dragged him to the domain of Islamic rational philosophy. In comparison to Muslim and Jewish textualists and rationalists of the Middle Ages, he chose the middle way and defended the reasons for his choice in the theological parts of his Theologico- Political Treatise: he argued that neither is philosophy at the service of religion, nor is religion at the service of philosophy. Based on this Spinozist idea, two hypotheses can be postulated: 1) the impossibility of the unity of philosophy and religion in Theologico-Political Treatise does not necessarily indicate providing some secular principles for the public domain; 2) following the historical hermeneutic approach to holy texts, this treatise provides a fideist theory which frees the vast field of living in the modern world from meaningless sterility and coldness. Manuscript profile

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5 - Rereading Suhrawardi’s Illuminationist Philosophy in the Light of Pierre Hadot’s Philosophical Model: Philosophy as a Way of Life
Amir Abbas ‘Alizamani Zahra Rastakhiz Ghasroaldashti

Pierre Hadot (1922-2010), the contemporary French philosopher showed the dynamism and true life of philosophy in philosophers’ everyday life through presenting a philosophical model, called Philosophy as a Way of Life, which is the product of his several years of resear More

Pierre Hadot (1922-2010), the contemporary French philosopher showed the dynamism and true life of philosophy in philosophers’ everyday life through presenting a philosophical model, called Philosophy as a Way of Life, which is the product of his several years of research in the field of ancient philosophy. In this paper, the writers have tried to analyze and interpret Suhrawardi’s Illuminationist philosophy based on this model. Accordingly, in the first part, in addition to introducing the mentioned model, they explain its important elements such as the philosophical language of spiritual practice and its place in studying philosophical schools pursuing spiritual guidance. The second part provides an analysis and interpretation of the Illuminationist philosophy in the framework of this model. Therefore, it initially propounds the basic principles of Suhrawardi’s school regarding light, the hierarchy of lights, the soul and its significance, the world of Ideas and its necessity, epistemology, and ontology. Discussing the fundamental principles of Illuminationist philosophy helps to specify the way of life and its elements and features in this school in relation to the philosophical model of “Philosophy as a Way of Life”. Since Suhrawardi’s Illuminationist philosophy bears a tight unity with gnosis and spiritual wayfaring, it is difficult to perceive it philosophically and to demonstrate its structural coherence in explaining various philosophical problems. Through presenting certain strategies, Hadot’s model enables researchers to develop a coherent and comprehensive perception of the problems propounded in this philosophical-gnostic school and the way of life it advocates. Manuscript profile

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6 - A Study of the Idea of Crisis in Husserl’s View and its Background in the 19th Century European Philosophy
Seyyed mas‘ud Seyf Afshin Mo’azzen

At the beginning of the 20th century a vast trend which was unanimously called “the crisis of European science and culture” by its advocates emerged in Europe. Following the same trend, Husserl, one of the distinguished European thinkers of the early 20th century, intro More

At the beginning of the 20th century a vast trend which was unanimously called “the crisis of European science and culture” by its advocates emerged in Europe. Following the same trend, Husserl, one of the distinguished European thinkers of the early 20th century, introduced phenomenology as a solution to overcome this full-scale crisis, which, in his view, dominated Europe during the second half of the 19th century. He maintained that this crisis manifested itself in the form of absence of unity and coherence in philosophy and sciences (both natural and human sciences), as well as in the alienation of sciences from people’s everyday life. Husserl argued that the roots and causes of this crisis must be sought in the scientific and philosophical approaches of the 19th century Europe. During this period and after the demise of Hegel, certain schools such as Marxism, biologism, and historical hermeneutics appeared under the influence of Hegelian schools and the idea of historical relativism that they advocated. A common feature of all of them was their interest in relativism. Each of these schools, through negating the possibility of achieving a single and certain truth and also relativising it based on its own principles provided the context for the development of the above-mentioned crisis. After disclosing the nature of crisis in the philosophical principles of the West and through presenting a critical interpretation of Cartesian fundamentalism. Husserl suggested a method called “phenomenological interpretation” in order to have access to a solid and unifying basis for sciences. In spite of the several criticisms targeting this method, it has turned into one of the most fundamental phenomenological elements which has influenced a11 the philosophical schools which were developed after this prominent philosopher. Manuscript profile

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7 - Objectivity and Representativeness of Propositions in the Practical Philosophies of Kant and Mulla Sadra
Hossein Qasemi

Kant, the modern philosopher, believes that the development of Man’s moral life depends on designing a moral system the principles of which are based on reason and objectivity. In this way, it would be free from any kind of subjectivity and personal bias, which damaged More

Kant, the modern philosopher, believes that the development of Man’s moral life depends on designing a moral system the principles of which are based on reason and objectivity. In this way, it would be free from any kind of subjectivity and personal bias, which damaged the moral system of his period. The only proposition which enjoys these features is the categorical imperative. Now, the problem is how Kant justifies the objectivity and truth of this imperative. Another question is how this problem is answered in Mulla Sadra’s Islamic philosophy. In his Critique of Practical Reason, Kant maintains that practical matters are rooted in the moral law and tries to justify them by resorting to practical reason and the notion of freedom. Although Kant’s discussions in the field of philosophy of ethics proceed in a way to demonstrate nomena and, particularly, freedom, he considers them to be among axioms. This means that the reality of practical reason and freedom only justify the practical possibility of moral experience and other practical fields. In other words, admitting the reality of the intellect and freedom is merely based on belief and faith, consequently, moral propositions are rational rather than cognitional. In Mulla Sadra’s Transcendent Philosophy, practical propositions in individual and social fields are developed based on practical reason while attending to its relationship with theoretical reason. Moreover, the realms of both theory and practice stem from the innermost of the soul and are known through presential knowledge. As a result, all mental and rational perceptions are related to the truth of the good and its grades as an ontological affair. In this way, the objectivity and truth of these propositions are justified not based on certain axioms but by resorting to the possibility of the presential knowledge of the world of fact-itself. In this paper, the writer has tried to discuss the truth and objectivity of propositions in practical philosophy through employing a comparative method and the analysis of the philosophical principles of Kant and Mulla Sadra in order to highlight the importance of the principles of the Transcendent Philosophy. Manuscript profile

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8 - An Analytic Study of the Background of the Growth of Philosophy in the Buyid Period
Ali Akbar Kajbaf Sae‘id Moa’kedi

Each field of science demands its own particular conditions for growth; likewise, philosophy is a science the seed of which does not come to fruition in all kinds of soil. The ups and downs of the growth of philosophy in the history of Iran testify to this fact. During More

Each field of science demands its own particular conditions for growth; likewise, philosophy is a science the seed of which does not come to fruition in all kinds of soil. The ups and downs of the growth of philosophy in the history of Iran testify to this fact. During the Buyid Era, this discipline experienced such a considerable growth in the writing and translation of related books and in the attention to philosophers and training philosophy students that one inevitably inquires about the underlying factors of this phenomenon. In order to provide an answer to this question, the authors of this article have explored and analyzed the background of the growth of philosophy in this historical period of Iran. The findings of this research, which was carried out following the descriptive-analytic method, indicate that various scientific-cultural and political-religious factors affected the trend of this growth both directly and indirectly. Here, the authors have tried to examine the influence of these factors over the growth of philosophy in the Buyid Period. Manuscript profile

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9 - A Historical Study of the Origins of the Problem of Method in Western Philosophy and its Reflection on the Methodologies of Descartes and Spinoza
Hossein Saberi Varzaneh

The present paper deals with the background and causes of the rise of the problem of method and its importance in the 17th century, particularly, in Descartes and Spinoza. The criticisms advanced against the different aspects of Aristotelian philosophy (such as the disc More

The present paper deals with the background and causes of the rise of the problem of method and its importance in the 17th century, particularly, in Descartes and Spinoza. The criticisms advanced against the different aspects of Aristotelian philosophy (such as the discussion of the universals, the re-emergence of Pyrrhonian skepticism, functionalism in sciences, and the development of exact sciences) wavered the foundations of previous philosophical schools and gave rise to discussions regarding the criteria for the truth and the correct methods of thinking. As a result, some logicians such as Zabarella and Eutyches decided to revise Aristotelian logic and began speaking of methods of analysis and synthesis, definition processes, and the cohesion and coherence of matters of discussion. Following the same tradition and, of course, under the influence of Aristotle’s critics, Descartes and Spinoza advocated the geometric method of analysis and synthesis. In this way, they tried to provide a guarantee for the truth of their words and transform the infertility of the Aristotelian categorical syllogism into an invaluable, fertile, and methodic kind of thinking. Manuscript profile

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10 - Substance in Modern Empiricism
Alireza Javanmardi Adib Mohammad Akvan

The epistemological approach to Empiricism in the Modern era is opposed to the rationalist approach of Descartes and his followers, who believed in the existence of certain innate ideas prior to experience in Man’s mind. The thinkers advocating this approach explored ra More

The epistemological approach to Empiricism in the Modern era is opposed to the rationalist approach of Descartes and his followers, who believed in the existence of certain innate ideas prior to experience in Man’s mind. The thinkers advocating this approach explored rationalists’ metaphysical problems through denying innate ideas and considering sense experience as the source of knowledge. The results of such investigations had nothing to say, even at their peak, about substance except when trying to deny it. Accordingly, given the process of the development of empiricism by the pioneers of this approach and its consequences, the authors of this paper have tried to deal with the following basic question: After accepting the specific reading of some empiricists such as Locke, Berkeley, and Hume from the process of attaining knowledge, would it be possible to accept the existence of substance? Here, the writers respond that, based on their studies of the above thinkers’ views of substance, the acceptance of substance is not consistent with empiricism. This is because substance is a meta-empirical entity which sense experience cannot grasp. What follows sense experience in the end is nothing but a collection of impressions which can never explain the existence of substance. Manuscript profile

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11 - Ethical Doctrines in Aristotle and Ibn Miskawayh Razi
Ali Mohammad Sajedi Hajar Darayitabar

Different schools of ethics have presented different doctrines in the field of ethics. Ethical doctrines include the premises, criteria, and referents of ethical acts. The differences between schools of ethics in their doctrines are rooted in their philosophical princip More

Different schools of ethics have presented different doctrines in the field of ethics. Ethical doctrines include the premises, criteria, and referents of ethical acts. The differences between schools of ethics in their doctrines are rooted in their philosophical principles. The ethical schools of both Ibn Miskawayh and Aristotle are virtualistic. Ibn Miskawayh believes that the most important prerequisites for ethical acts are self-knowledge, education, and training. Both thinkers explain the criteria for ethical acts relying on the principles of free will, intellect, moderation, and religious laws and analyze their referents based on elements of virtue, joy, friendship, etc. However, given the different worldviews of these two philosophers, their ideas of any of the ethical elements and referents are also different. Unlike Aristotle, Ibn Miskawayh attaches great importance to Islamic laws in relation to his ethical views. Moreover, he is able to provide a more successful model of ethical doctrines based on his monotheistic worldview. Influenced by religious teachings, he also believes that religious training plays an influential and efficient role in ethical growth and development. This paper is intended to explore ethical doctrines by comparing the ideas of these two philosophers. Manuscript profile

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12 - Marsilius of Padua and the Roots of Legal Secularism in the Middle Ages
Yashar Jeirani Mostafa Younesie

The present paper deals with the possibility of propounding the concept of “legal secularism” in the ideas of Marsilius of Padua. All commentators of Marsilius have detected a preliminary form of secularism, that is, institutionalized secularism, in his works and those More

The present paper deals with the possibility of propounding the concept of “legal secularism” in the ideas of Marsilius of Padua. All commentators of Marsilius have detected a preliminary form of secularism, that is, institutionalized secularism, in his works and those of his contemporary scholars. This kind of secularism is opposed to the interference of the institution of the church as such in the field of politics. However, the same commentators have refused confirming a more advanced form of secularism in his works which is called legal secularism that is, one which is opposed to the interference of theological ideas as an official source with the laws. All commentators believe that this kind of secularism is rooted in the political philosophy of the modern period and, particularly, John Locke’s philosophy and maintain that attributing it to Marsilius is a kind of interpretive anachronism. Unlike the common theories, this paper aims to contradict this historistic interpretation of Marsilius’ political philosophy and, through analyzing his writings, demonstrate that his interpretation of faith as an inner and private affair can lead us toward a preliminary but clear form of legal secularism in his works. Manuscript profile

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13 - Principle of the Identity of Quiddity and Existence in the Truth in Islamic Tradition and Greek Philosophy
Huda Habibimanesh Shamsollah Seraj

The problem of the identity of existence and quiddity in Almighty Necessary has been referred to as the identity of existence and quiddity in the Truth in the works of Muslim philosophers and is dealt with as a philosophical principle. The great figures of Islamic philo More

The problem of the identity of existence and quiddity in Almighty Necessary has been referred to as the identity of existence and quiddity in the Truth in the works of Muslim philosophers and is dealt with as a philosophical principle. The great figures of Islamic philosophy have provided different interpretations of this principle and derived various consequences from it. Undoubtedly, the ideas of Greek philosophers and the teachings of Islam have played a significant role in the development of this principle by Muslim philosophers. The present paper intends to analyze the roots and origins of this principle, and it appears that a conceptual analysis of the technical terms used there could help researchers to derive better and more profound conclusions from this principle. Manuscript profile

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14 - A Critical Evaluation of Hegel’s Reading of the Origin of Heraclitus’ Doctrines
Dariush Darvishy

At the beginning of the modern period, German philosophy turned its eyes, more than to any other philosophical traditions, to Greek philosophy and borrowed its most fundamental principles from this school. This Hellenistic tradition in German philosophy, on the one hand More

At the beginning of the modern period, German philosophy turned its eyes, more than to any other philosophical traditions, to Greek philosophy and borrowed its most fundamental principles from this school. This Hellenistic tradition in German philosophy, on the one hand, granted a new depth to these teachings and, on the other hand, resulted in some misunderstandings about Greek philosophy. This paper is intended to formulate one of the most well-known of such misunderstandings. This misunderstanding is rooted in the bases of Heraclitus’ teachings. Some ancient philosophers, such as Plato and Aristotle, who studied Heraclitus’ book, believed that the doctrine of motion was the basis of all his other doctrines. This was the case while Hegel, at a time when German modern philosophy was at its height of development, tried to bring his philosophy into harmony with Heraclitus’ doctrines. However, since it was impossible, he brought Heraclitus’ doctrines into harmony with the fundamental principles of his own philosophy. For example, he considered the basis of this early philosopher’s philosophy to be, not the doctrine of motion, but the identity of opposites. This reading of Hegel was soon accepted by some of researchers of Greek philosophy. In this paper, the writer has tried to demonstrate that a return to an ancient reading of the basis of Heraclitus’ philosophy is much more justified than accepting a Hegelian reading of the nature of its fundamental principles. Manuscript profile

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15 - A Comparison of Farabi’s Logico-Linguistic Theories with the Principles and Theories of Contemporary Linguistics
Mahmoud Reza Moradian

The main purpose of the present article is to compare the logico-linguistic theories of Farabi with contemporary linguistic principles and theories. To this end, the writers initially review the history of the development of linguistics and its turning into an independe More

The main purpose of the present article is to compare the logico-linguistic theories of Farabi with contemporary linguistic principles and theories. To this end, the writers initially review the history of the development of linguistics and its turning into an independent discipline. Then they introduce the most common fields and theories in contemporary linguistics. Finally, they compare Farabi’s logico-linguistic theories with more recent linguistic concepts and theories. Ten centuries ago, Farabi referred to linguistics as one of the sciences of his time and introduced certain fields, principles, and theories for it which bear amazing similarity to contemporary linguistic theories from several aspects. Moreover, in the science of the laws of singular words, which is the third part of his seven-part science of language, he studies letters, sounds, and words as discussed in the phonology and morphology of today. In the science of compound words (fourth part of his language science), he examines the syntactic structure of sentences and their components. His theories in this regard bear a strange similarity to Chomsky’s phrase structure grammar. By distinguishing grammar or syntax from logic, Farabi established a relationship between them which could be illuminating to the philosophers, logicians, and grammarians following him concerning some of the theories of contemporary linguistics such as the theory of the universal grammar and its principles and parameters, the theory of the language acquisition device and its innateness, and the theory of surface and deep structures. His ideas about syntax and logic and their relationship is extremely innovative and useful, and some clear traces about certain modern theories such as the concept of the phonological surface structure and semantic deep structure of sentences and the theory of the innateness of language can be found therein. This paper explains Farabi’s theories and their relationship with modern linguistic theories in order to reveal some aspects of the genius, breadth of knowledge, academic certitude, and magnanimity of this prominent Iranian and Islamic scientist, philosopher, and linguist following a scientific method. Manuscript profile

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16 - A Critical Study and Analysis of Kant’s Ideas concerning the Validity of Categorical Imperative based on Mulla Sadra’s View
Hossein Qasemi

The study of moral propositions and their nature has attracted the attention of philosophers since long ago. Whether these propositions enjoy sufficient flexibility in terms of content is one of the problems discussed in the field of philosophy of ethics. In the West, t More

The study of moral propositions and their nature has attracted the attention of philosophers since long ago. Whether these propositions enjoy sufficient flexibility in terms of content is one of the problems discussed in the field of philosophy of ethics. In the West, the modern philosopher, Kant, believed that moral propositions should enjoy a categorical nature. In his view, determining moral acts by any factor other than the “moral law” will result in subordinating them to the subjective will. His insistence on the validity of the categorical imperative originates in purifying practical wisdom from all empirical factors such as hedonism, sentimentalism, God’s Will, and intellectual perfection. Moreover, he sought the “end” and “good” in man’s nature. Accordingly, the law of ethics and the objective principle of act are introduced as the bases of the categorical imperative and, as a result, all other factors are invalidated. In other fields of philosophy, particularly, in Mulla Sadra’s philosophy, the emphasis on the categorical nature of moral judgments is seriously criticized. Mulla Sadra rejects not only Kant’s a priori interpretation of practical reason but also his interpretation of the good and the end. Alongside moral facts, Mulla Sadra speaks of individual and social differences and, as a result, accepts several levels of being in lower realms of human beings. All these plural beings affect the validity of particular and unnecessary judgments and challenge Kant’s categorical ideas. The present paper analyzes Kant’s view of the categorical imperative and, then, criticizes it relying on the philosophical ideas of Mulla Sadra and some of the commentators of Kant. Manuscript profile

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17 - Aristotelian Golden Mean in Abu Nasr Farabi
Zohreh Tavaziany

From among the views propounded in the field of ethics, Aristotle’s theory of golden mean has attracted the greatest attention of Muslim philosophers, including Farabi, who is considered to be the founder of Islamic philosophy. The problem here is whether Farabi himself More

From among the views propounded in the field of ethics, Aristotle’s theory of golden mean has attracted the greatest attention of Muslim philosophers, including Farabi, who is considered to be the founder of Islamic philosophy. The problem here is whether Farabi himself was merely content with a pure imitation, explanation, and expansion of Aristotle’s theory in designing his ethical system or developed his independent view in the realm of ethics. Through presenting a documented report of Farabi’s views in ethics, the present paper intends to demonstrate that, in spite of Aristotle’s undeniable influence on his thoughts in the development of some of his philosophical principles in the field of ethics, such as considering happiness to be the ultimate goal and resorting to the theory of the mean in explaining virtues and posing Aristotle’s four-fold virtues, Farabi was never content with a mere explanation of Aristotle’s ideas in this regard and, on the contrary, presented his own specific theories. Clearly, Farabi promotes happiness from the level of a purely ethical concept with an individualistic bent to the level of a social concept and considers it to be the foundation of the political systems that are based on virtue. He also enters some purely religious features into this field and clearly explains them. However, his ideas in this regard are not immune to criticism. What places Farabi with regard to his ethical theories in the same line with Aristotelians is the problem of proposing the mean as the criterion for determining moral virtues. Through emphasizing this problem, this paper intends to demonstrate how Farabi has organized his ethical system based on the elements he has borrowed from Aristotle. Manuscript profile

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18 - Theorem of Eternal Recurrence in Suhrawardi’s Philosophy and Poincaré’s Physics
Mehdi ‘Azimi

“Eternal recurrence” is an old theorem in the history of philosophy stating that any event in the world will recur in future in a self-similar form an infinite number of times as it has recurred an infinite number of times previously. Suhrawardi discusses this theorem i More

“Eternal recurrence” is an old theorem in the history of philosophy stating that any event in the world will recur in future in a self-similar form an infinite number of times as it has recurred an infinite number of times previously. Suhrawardi discusses this theorem in his Hikmat al-ishraq and al-Mashari‘ wa al-mutarihat and adduces some arguments in order to demonstrate it. In his T‘aliqat written on Qutb al-Din Shirazi’s commentary on Hikmat al-ishraq, Mulla Sadra evaluates Suhrawardi’s argument and deems them unfounded. However, the falsity of the argument does not indicate the falsity of the claim, particularly, because we have Poincaré’s “proposition of recurrence” before us demonstrating that, in any system, the initial states of all component parts of a whole will recur after the passage of a sufficiently long time. This idea necessitates the demonstration of the theorem of “eternal recurrence”. Nevertheless, one must ask how long this sufficiently “long time” is. Based on the calculations of Chandrasekhar, for a spherical volume of air with a radius of one centimeter at a standard point of temperature and pressure, with one percent of fluctuation in density around the mean, this time is equal to 3 trillion years! Therefore, the time of the recurrence of the whole universe is so long that the life of its components will come to an end long before that time. This will make the recurrence of the universe impossible. Therefore, this paper concludes that the theorem of “eternal recurrence”, which Suhrawardi also believes in, is essentially possible but practically impossible. Manuscript profile

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19 - Background of the Cartesian Distinction in Islamic Philosophy and Kalam
Mahdi Assadi

This paper intends to demonstrate that the traces of the epistemological criterion for Cartesian distinction existed previously in Islamic philosophy and kalam. Hence, the writer initially refers to Descartes’ views and follows their traces in the ideas of early Muslim More

This paper intends to demonstrate that the traces of the epistemological criterion for Cartesian distinction existed previously in Islamic philosophy and kalam. Hence, the writer initially refers to Descartes’ views and follows their traces in the ideas of early Muslim scholars. Then he refers to the views of some Muslim thinkers such as Fakhr al-Din Razi, ‘Allamah Hilli, Taftazani, and Mulla Sadra, who were already involved in this discussion more than others and propounded more solid and plausible theories in this regard. They have sometimes reviewed the same informed theories critically before some of the critiques of Descartes. In this way, the author reveals that Islamic thinkers’ interpretation of the Cartesian distinction is closer to Hume’s more solid interpretation of this notion than to that of Descartes himself. Hume states that clarity and distinction result in possible existence rather than the very existence of the researchers. Manuscript profile

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20 - Place of Justice in Plato and Farabi’s Utopia
Hossein Kalbasi Ashtari Parviz Hajizadeh

Justice is the key term by which Farabi has managed to explicate the foundations of the genetic system of the world. Moreover, based on the same concept and following Plato, he has entered it into the structure of utopia and justified the system of individual ethics acc More

Justice is the key term by which Farabi has managed to explicate the foundations of the genetic system of the world. Moreover, based on the same concept and following Plato, he has entered it into the structure of utopia and justified the system of individual ethics accordingly. Here, the writers maintain that it is only through matching the system of divine legislation to creation and using it as a model in establishing individual and social relationships that Man can attain happiness, which is the ultimate end of Plato and Farabi’s utopia. Manuscript profile

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21 - God in Process Theology and Mulla Sadra
Hamed Naji Isfahani

This paper presents a comparative study of two philosophical trends. Therefore, it has been organized in two parts: process theology and Sadrian Transcendent Philosophy. Process theology appeared in the 20th century as one of the developmental thought processes followed More

This paper presents a comparative study of two philosophical trends. Therefore, it has been organized in two parts: process theology and Sadrian Transcendent Philosophy. Process theology appeared in the 20th century as one of the developmental thought processes followed by philosophers in the field of religion. Given all the arguments and conflicts existing in the Middle Ages and Modernity’s atheism, its followers sought to present a new version of theology in which various notions such as God, His pre-eternity, His Power, the existence of evil in the world, the relationship between God and the world of being, and the relationship between the changing world and God are revisited. This new school, which was established by Alfred North Whitehead and expanded by Charles Hartshorne and David Ray Griffin, is presently studied in western academic centers as one of the prevalent theological and religious schools. In general, this school has made two contributions to the field of philosophy: 1) presenting a new version of theology, the conformity of which with holy texts is questionable; 2) presenting a new form of ontology and the quality of God’s relationship with the world. The Transcendent Philosophy was initially founded by Mulla Sadra and developed at three stages: the Avicennan stage of the understanding of existence, gradation of existence, and the individual unity of existence. Although Mulla Sadra has not distinguished these three stages from each other in his magnum opus, al-Asfar, the evolution of his ideas in his various treatises attest to this developmental process. Through discovering the principiality of existence, he proceeded to generalize his understanding of existence from the level of concept to the level of referent. Finally, he presented a new model of God’s relationship with the world of being, which can be practically explored based on the development of his philosophical thoughts. This new approach to the concept of existence affected most theological concepts in the field of religion and prompted him to provide a new version of theology. The writer believes that, unlike Mulla Sadra’s system of individual unity, which is in the process of change, his gradational system is a relatively complete one. It is noteworthy that there is a relative conformity between the fundamental principles of the graded unity of existence and those of the Christian process theology. Of course, as explained in the paper, the Sadrian school is much more efficient and accurate than process theology in understanding religious and comparative teachings. Therefore, in addition to posing the discussion of process theology and its new achievements concerning religious concepts, the present paper compares this school with Mulla Sadra’s system of gradational wisdom and explores it strengths and weaknesses. Manuscript profile

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22 - Essentialism and the Issue of Knowledge in Mulla Sadra and Heidegger
Mohammad Reza Balanian

The propositional language of Aristotelian logic concerning the existents of the world is based on his 10 categories. The habit of employing this language in everyday life and in the field of philosophy has resulted in the emergence of certain difficulties regarding som More

The propositional language of Aristotelian logic concerning the existents of the world is based on his 10 categories. The habit of employing this language in everyday life and in the field of philosophy has resulted in the emergence of certain difficulties regarding some philosophical problems. From among them, we can refer to the problems related to essence or quiddity and the quality of acquiring the knowledge of existents in the outside world. The purpose of the present paper is to reveal the quality of the effect of this kind of language and, following it, essentialism in the realm of epistemology with special reference to two philosophers of existence in the East and West, Mulla Sadra and Martin Heidegger, respectively, concerning the terms “essence” and “quiddity”. Here, the writers conclude that, based on Heidegger’s philosophy and Mulla Sadra’s Transcendent Philosophy, particularly as reflected in the words of some of the commentators of the second school, the logic of essentialism and its tools are not capable of solving the problem of the conformity of mental forms with external realities and providing a justifiable criterion for defending this conformity. Manuscript profile

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23 - Misbah’s Critical Study and Critique of Descartes’ Theory of the Process and Structure of Knowledge
Hesam al-Din Mo’meni

Whenever reference is made to the process and structure of gaining knowledge, one may argue that the possibility of gaining it is rooted in one’s destiny. In fact, if someone absolutely doubts or has some suspicions concerning the possibility of gaining knowledge, he ca More

Whenever reference is made to the process and structure of gaining knowledge, one may argue that the possibility of gaining it is rooted in one’s destiny. In fact, if someone absolutely doubts or has some suspicions concerning the possibility of gaining knowledge, he can never portray its process and structure. Given the fact that Descartes accepts the possibility of knowledge, the question is which strategies, processes, and stages he proposes for a knower to gain knowledge. Here, he appeals to intuition and inference and asks God not to deceive him. In his study and critique of Descartes’ theory of the process of knowledge, Misbah maintains that it is wrong to assume that the existence of nothing is as clear and certain as the existence of doubt, and even the existence of the skeptic has to be proved through the existence of doubt. He also rejects the innate ideas intended by Descartes. In this paper, the writers have explained Descartes’ theory of the process and structure of knowledge and reviewed it critically from Misbah’s point of view. Manuscript profile

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24 - A Study of the Historical Background of Reductionism
Mahdi Ghiyasvand

Reductionism has been so prevalent in contemporary philosophy in certain fields such as the philosophy of religion, the philosophy of science, and the philosophy of mind that some have called our time the period of reductionism. The naive form of the idea of reduction w More

Reductionism has been so prevalent in contemporary philosophy in certain fields such as the philosophy of religion, the philosophy of science, and the philosophy of mind that some have called our time the period of reductionism. The naive form of the idea of reduction which is expressed as the very “A is nothing but B” has appeared in so many diverse forms and models since the second half of the 20th century that its primary form can be hardly observed today. In this study, the writer aims to investigate the historical background of reductionism as an idea. In doing so, he initially provides a brief historical-logical account of the background of this idea since the second half of the 20th century onwards. In the second part of the paper, he begins his discussion with the philosophy of ancient Greece. Then he brings it to an end through referring to the analysis of this idea by the members of the Vienna Circle and connecting it to the point at which he began the first part of the paper, i.e. the second half of the 20th century. Manuscript profile

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25 - A Study of Fakhr al-Din Razi’s Critique of Ibn Sina’s Argument on the Immateriality Dimension of Place with an Emphasis on its Historical Aspect
ehsan kordi ardakani Mahmood Seidi

Place has always been one of the most challenging philosophical discussions in the history of Islamic philosophy. Aristotle was the first to trigger this discussion. Through explaining the signs of place, he not only clarified the view of surface in this regard but also More

Place has always been one of the most challenging philosophical discussions in the history of Islamic philosophy. Aristotle was the first to trigger this discussion. Through explaining the signs of place, he not only clarified the view of surface in this regard but also criticized other related theories, particularly, the theory of immaterial dimension or empty space (void). His misunderstanding of Plato’s words in the dialogue of Timaeus led to the development of the theory of void in the discussion of place. Muslim philosophers, especially Ibn Sina, criticized this theory while ignoring this historical mistake. One of the most important arguments in this regard is the overlap of dimensions and their realization without matter. Through criticizing Ibn Sina’s arguments, Fakhr al-Din Razi supported the theory of void. In this paper, the authors demonstrate that his objections to Ibn Sina’s arguments originate in his neglecting the principles of the Peripatetic philosophy, particularly, the impossibility of the realization of dimensions without matter. Manuscript profile

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26 - Historical Roots of the Concept and Referent of Prime Matter and the First Emanated in Greek Philosophy
ali haghi Abbas Javareshkian Hossein Bulkhari Ghahi

Undoubtedly, the history of philosophy follows a continuous and successive process of development in the course of human life. Although inventions and new problems and topics have always been witnessed and warmly welcomed in this field, they have never interrupted the c More

Undoubtedly, the history of philosophy follows a continuous and successive process of development in the course of human life. Although inventions and new problems and topics have always been witnessed and warmly welcomed in this field, they have never interrupted the continuous process of development of thought in the realm of philosophy. In fact, philosophy, which is the most illuminating dimension of human intellection on the history of thoughts, is responsible for the rational explanation of the most important issues in human life. Undoubtedly, one of the most important of all of them is clarifying the relationship between the Creator or Maker of the world and existents and creatures. Now, if we consider the rise of philosophy in Greece as a crucial event in the history of philosophy, the quality of the philosophical approach to prime matter and, then, the issue of the first emanated are viewed as two of the most significant and fascinating topics in this field. Following an analytic approach, the writers have tried to study the historical background of the first emanated in the history of Islamic philosophy (intellect as the first creation) with reference to Greek philosophy in this regard. The writers assume that the history of philosophy in Islamic civilization has been developed by deliberating over some Greek thoughts and has established the foundation of its own philosophical structure through a profound review of philosophical resources, such as the Qur’an and traditions, as the absolute center of this enterprise. Manuscript profile

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27 - Sophists and Muslim Sceptics
Abdullah Farrahi

Scepticism was one of the most important products of a transition period which emerged in the world of Islam in the form of a philosophical movement called Sophism. According to a number of Muslim mutakallimun, including the “Inadiyyah”, “Indiyyah”, and “agnostics”, Mus More

Scepticism was one of the most important products of a transition period which emerged in the world of Islam in the form of a philosophical movement called Sophism. According to a number of Muslim mutakallimun, including the “Inadiyyah”, “Indiyyah”, and “agnostics”, Muslim sceptics, led by a person called Salih Ibn ‘Abdulquddus, were a group who, similar to Greek and Indian sophists and sceptics, mainly appeared in the Islamic civilization as a philosophical movement or trend rather than a philosophical school. They denied the truth and originality of both “subject” and the “object”, and, in their view, everything merely enjoyed an imaginal, illusory, and conjectural existence. The vigorous confrontation of theologians, particularly, the Mu‘tazilite, natural and logical philosophers, and Sufist thinkers, such as Ghazzali, with this trend resulted in the quick annihilation of this group so that there has rarely remained any reference to the names of their advocates or their works in history. Of course, Muslim sceptics also played a role in undermining the teachings adopted from sense perception and rational sciences and, as a result, attracting the attention of Muslim thinkers to presential instead of acquired knowledge and persuading them to develop an interest in gnosis and Sufism instead of science and philosophy. Manuscript profile

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28 - Mulla Rajabali and Mulla Sadra’s Approach to Uthulujia
Ali Karbasizadeh Isfahani Faride Koohrang Beheshti

Uthulujia by Plotinus, which had been mistakenly attributed to Aristotle for many years, has influenced all Muslim philosophers, including Mulla Rajabali Tabrizi and Mulla Sadra. Although both philosophers were contemporary with each other, followed the School of Isfaha More

Uthulujia by Plotinus, which had been mistakenly attributed to Aristotle for many years, has influenced all Muslim philosophers, including Mulla Rajabali Tabrizi and Mulla Sadra. Although both philosophers were contemporary with each other, followed the School of Isfahan, dealt with similar problems, and resorted to Uthulujia in order to confirm their own ideas and theories, they led two completely different philosophical trends in the history of philosophy and, in fact, stood against each other. Mulla Rajabali’s great attachment to Kalami issues persuaded him to believe that accepting the univocality of the Necessary Being and the possible beings and attributing different adjectives and qualities to the divine essence is far from God’s incomparability to other things and against Qur’anic verses and traditions. However, Mulla Sadra, in spite of his interest in Kalami and gnostic issues, believed that such problems could be solved in the light of his theory of the gradation of existence. Nevertheless, the noteworthy point is how is it possible for two philosophers with opposing ideas regarding different problems to have benefitted and quoted from the same book! Although the influence of Uthulujia over the philosophical and ideological principles of these two philosophers is undeniable, it seems that, since both believed that this book was written by Aristotle, whom both considered to be a divine philosopher, they tried to refer to this book in order to confirm their ideas and prove their validity. Thus each looked at Uthulujia from his own point of view and perceived its content based on his own ideas. Wherever they saw it consistent with their own principles, they quoted the related statements in order to confirm their ideas, and wherever they saw its content inconsistent with their views, they ignored it or tried to justify the case. Manuscript profile

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29 - Suhrawardi’s Background in Advocating Mentally-Positedness of Existence
Mahmoud Hedayatafza Zeynab Bostani

Suhrawardi explicitly confirmed the “mentally-positedness of existence” in his most important works. He had correctly concluded the “external occurrence of existence to quiddity” from the works of Farabi and Ibn Sina and, while criticizing some of Ibn Sina’s words, had More

Suhrawardi explicitly confirmed the “mentally-positedness of existence” in his most important works. He had correctly concluded the “external occurrence of existence to quiddity” from the works of Farabi and Ibn Sina and, while criticizing some of Ibn Sina’s words, had adduced several arguments for his own view. However, some contemporary scholars, when analyzing his standpoints, have ignored his background regarding the mentally-positedness of existence and introduced him as the first person who advocated this view. In the present paper, after a brief account of Farabi’s and Ibn Sina’s arguments concerning the relationship between existence and quiddity in possible things, the authors have analyzed Suhrawardi’s critical approach to this issue and then referred to three different sources for his belief in the mentally-positedness of existence. His hidden sources in this regard consist of some of the words of Bahmanyar and Omar Khayyam which he has quoted without citing the names of these two scholars in order to support his own arguments for the mentally-positedness of existence. His obvious source is a text written by Ibn Sahlan Sawi in al-Mashari’ wa’l-mutarihat. Since the philosophy section of Hakim Sawi’s book is not available, one cannot correctly judge the quality and quantity of the influence of above-mentioned thinkers on Suhrawardi. Nevertheless, available evidence demonstrates the certainty of his frequent adaptations of Bahmanyar’s works on the rejection of the “external objectivity of existence”. Manuscript profile

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30 - Historical Deliberations over the Principle of the Nobler Possibility
Hoorieh Shojaee Baghini Einollah Khademi

The present paper examines the principiality of the principle of the nobler possibility as an Illuminationist principle. Despite the common belief regarding the Greek root of this principle, here the writers claim that it is among the concomitants of the Illuminationist More

The present paper examines the principiality of the principle of the nobler possibility as an Illuminationist principle. Despite the common belief regarding the Greek root of this principle, here the writers claim that it is among the concomitants of the Illuminationist philosophy and is not consistent with Peripatetic ideas and principles. In order to demonstrate their standpoint, they initially provide some proofs from the works of Suhrawari himself and the commentators of his philosophical school and explain how the words of such commentators have led to the idea that this principle has a background prior to the development of Illuminationist philosophy. Second, they examine the concomitants of the Illuminationist school and conclude that Suhrawardi used this principle in order to prove the philosophical principles of his own school, which are not accepted by the Peripatetic school. Hence, it is wrong to seek for a background for this principle in pre-Suhrawardi times. Manuscript profile

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31 - Muslim Philosophers’ Reading of Milesian Pre-Socratic Philosophers
Mansour Nasiri Mahdi Askari

Early philosophers are of particular importance in the history of philosophy. This is because they led the first stages of the development of philosophical concepts and thoughts. Among them, three Milesian philosophers enjoy great significance. The question that they po More

Early philosophers are of particular importance in the history of philosophy. This is because they led the first stages of the development of philosophical concepts and thoughts. Among them, three Milesian philosophers enjoy great significance. The question that they posed prompted later philosophers to try hard to provide a worthy response for it. They posed the question of: “What is the origin of the world?” During the period of the translation of philosophical texts into Arabic, Muslim philosophers became familiar with these three thinkers to some extent and quoted and, in some cases, interpreted their ideas. The present paper is intended to introduce Muslim philosophers’ interpretation of the views of Milesian pre-Socratic philosophers and demonstrate how justified they were in their interpretation. A short response to this question is that Muslim philosophers provided a completely non-historical interpretation, which is open to historical criticism. Manuscript profile

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32 - Role of Christianity in the Return of Greek Philosophy to the Sassanid Iran
Zahra Abdi

The present paper explores the role of Christianity in the transfer of Greek sciences, particularly philosophy, to Iran during the Sassanid period. Initially, Christianity enjoyed a brotherly and cooperative nature; however, later, in order to consolidate the status of More

The present paper explores the role of Christianity in the transfer of Greek sciences, particularly philosophy, to Iran during the Sassanid period. Initially, Christianity enjoyed a brotherly and cooperative nature; however, later, in order to consolidate the status of theology and teaching it, Christian teachers and saints had to use a philosophical system, which they adapted from Greek philosophers, including Plato, Aristotle, and their followers, such as neo-Platonists. Some innovative branches of Christianity such as Monophysites and Nestorians began teaching their theoretical theology based on certain philosophical ideas. Moreover, the Syriac-speaking Christians of Mesopotamia, who were mainly Nestorian, translated the works of Plato, Aristotle, and neo-Platonists into Syriac in their schools so that, while teaching philosophy, they could use them in their own religious field. The emigration of these groups to Iran, whether as refugees or captives, resulted in the transfer of Greek sciences to Iran. In this paper, the writer has discussed the above issues based on library resources and following the descriptive-analytic method. Manuscript profile

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33 - Heidegger’s Interpretation of Anaximander’s Arche, Participation, and Time
Ghasem Purhassan Mehrdad Ahmadi

Heidegger believed that a metaphysical conceptualization of the relationship between identity and difference is not original and maintained that such negligence is rooted in the fact that metaphysics has forgotten “difference as such” as pure unfoldedness. In his view, More

Heidegger believed that a metaphysical conceptualization of the relationship between identity and difference is not original and maintained that such negligence is rooted in the fact that metaphysics has forgotten “difference as such” as pure unfoldedness. In his view, the Greeks had a clearer image of the above-mentioned relationship. In his interpretation of Anaximander’s view, Heidegger demonstrates that, while viewing all being as a whole, Anaximander does not ignore the differences among them. Based on Heidegger’s interpretation, through introducing apeiron and time as two fundamental elements, Anaximander managed to have an early encounter with the relationship between identity and difference. Heidegger called this relationship “participation” and maintained that this concept can lead one to fundamental difference. This is because, unlike metaphysical theories, it does not depend on external elements, upon which correlation relies; rather, it depends on the being of beings. Apeiron and time open the door to a pure space in the unfoldedness of which beings find their essence and, at the same time, depend so much on each other that the whole is created based on their mutual relation. Manuscript profile

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34 - Elements and Place of the Concept of Techne in Greek Ancient Philosophy with Reference to Heidegger’s View
Hassan Mehrnia Hossein Latifi Mahdi Zakeri

One of the significant and influential aspects of the philosophy of technology is the historical background of the concepts related to this field in the words of the writers and thinkers of ancient Greece. Among such concepts, the concept of techne, in the sense of tech More

One of the significant and influential aspects of the philosophy of technology is the historical background of the concepts related to this field in the words of the writers and thinkers of ancient Greece. Among such concepts, the concept of techne, in the sense of technique, industry, or art, and its place in ancient Greek works is of greater importance. Martin Heidegger was one of the first thinkers who conceived of the study of the concept of techne in ancient Greece as the introduction of a distinct perception of modern technology and held a particular view in this regard. Through the study of three groups of Greek texts, the present paper initially aims to trace the main elements of the concept of techne in the view of ancient Greek writers and thinkers. Second, through investigating Heidegger’s view, it intends to reintroduce the core of his analysis of this problem. Finally, it demonstrates that, firstly, techne is a rich concept, which, given its various elements, was so attractive to Greek thinkers that they used it in their philosophical discussions; secondly, its main elements have been repeated during ancient periods. However, in some periods, due to the existing conditions and views of different thinkers, some of its elements have become more foregrounded. The writers also conclude that reducing the complicated and multi-dimensional concept of techne into a general element does not appear to be correct and accurate. Manuscript profile

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35 - A Study of the Fundamental Principles and Elements of Comparative Philosophy in Izutsu’s Philosophy
Hamidreza Eskandari Ghasem Purhassan

Due to the dominance of the theory of analogy and Henry Corbin’s phenomenological approach, comparative philosophy has not yet been properly explored. In Iran, no reference has ever been made to Toshihiko Izutsu and his meta-historical theory, and no study has ever been More

Due to the dominance of the theory of analogy and Henry Corbin’s phenomenological approach, comparative philosophy has not yet been properly explored. In Iran, no reference has ever been made to Toshihiko Izutsu and his meta-historical theory, and no study has ever been conducted in this regard. Izutsu’s meta-historical view is a fundamental departure from Paul Masson-Oursel’s approach and even historicism. However, it is considered to be an innovative view which demands more accurate deliberation. Accordingly, the present study was conducted to explore the elements and fundamental principles of comparative philosophy in Izutsu’s thoughts. In doing so, the authors have examined the importance and place of Izutsu in comparative philosophy, the nature of comparative philosophy, the necessity and possibility of comparative philosophy, and Europe-centeredness in Izutsu’s philosophy. They aim to clarify how one can discover the necessity and possibility of comparative philosophy based on his principles and, at the same time, remain immune against the criticisms advanced against other comparative philosophical approaches. Manuscript profile

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36 - Moving from Anselm’s and Descartes’ Arguments to another Version of the Conceptual Argument on the Existence of God
Amir Divani

The conceptual argument which is called the “ontological argument” in Western philosophy moves from a concept in the mind to its external referent. This argument is only about a concept which exclusively applies to God. Philosophers unanimously concede that the move fro More

The conceptual argument which is called the “ontological argument” in Western philosophy moves from a concept in the mind to its external referent. This argument is only about a concept which exclusively applies to God. Philosophers unanimously concede that the move from the (mere) concept to the referent is not allowed; at the same time, they agree that the concept representing God, like the existence of God, which is unique and different from that of any other existent, is different from all other concepts and has no parallel among them. Anselm and Descartes have presented the conceptual argument in different ways. Irrespective of the truth or falsity of the leveled criticisms against these two arguments, the present paper suggests another version of this argument (conceptual argument) which, under the necessary conditions, will attain its end more conveniently. This concept enjoys certain features, among which representation is of great importance. The intended concept is the same concept of existence; an intelligible concept which is a part of the nature of the intellect and stands at a distance from any kind of association with whatness and non-existence. After interpreting this argument and exploring the writings of Muslim philosophers, including Mulla Sadra, the author concludes that some of his words could be used as proof for the truth of this claim. If this argument yields fruit, it demonstrates not only the general capability of the intellect in knowing God and His Attributes but also the possibility of providing a new version of some of the objectives of the great figures in the fields of philosophy and gnosis. Manuscript profile

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37 - Factors Influencing Hakim Zonouzi’s View of Corporeal Resurrection
Mohammad Mahdi Meshkati Ali Mostajeran Gortanee

The philosophical explanation of corporeal resurrection is one of the most important philosophical problems which has attracted the attention of researchers during the post-Sadra era. Given the existing ambiguities and questions in this respect, the legacy of earlier ph More

The philosophical explanation of corporeal resurrection is one of the most important philosophical problems which has attracted the attention of researchers during the post-Sadra era. Given the existing ambiguities and questions in this respect, the legacy of earlier philosophers, particularly Mulla Sadra, in relation to this problem, and the principles of the Transcendent Philosophy, such as the trans-substantial motion and the gradedness of existence, Hakim Agha Ali Modarres Zonouzi has carefully investigated the issue of corporeal resurrection and provided a new analysis in this regard. His view is based on three premises: firstly, after death, the soul leaves certain soulish effects and forms in trust with the cells and elements of the body. Secondly, such effects result in the trans-substantial motion and the change and evolution of the body. Thirdly, after the perfection of the body in the light of its trans-substantial motion, it joins its own specific soul so that no other soul would be appropriate enough to unite with it. Hakim Zonouzi managed to demonstrate his new explanation for corporeal resurrection relying on certain philosophical principles and analytic studies of authentic hadith sources. The present paper investigates some of Hakim Zonouzi’s philosophical principles such as the union of the body and the soul, the true and unitary texture of the form, and the quality of its subsistence in two states. Finally, it elaborates on consolidating Hakim Zonouzi’s specific theory based on a tradition from Imam Sadiq (a). Manuscript profile

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38 - Doubt and Certainty in Contemporary Islamic and Western Philosophies
Abdurrazzaq Hesamifar

Doubt and certainty are two soulish states which form problematic and certain knowledge in the process of human cognition. Problematic knowledge is mainly obtained in the realm of empirical sciences, while certain knowledge is mostly acquired in the domain of certain no More

Doubt and certainty are two soulish states which form problematic and certain knowledge in the process of human cognition. Problematic knowledge is mainly obtained in the realm of empirical sciences, while certain knowledge is mostly acquired in the domain of certain non-empirical sciences such as philosophy, logic, mathematics, and gnosis. In the history of philosophy, philosophers often sought certain knowledge and believed that it is possible to attain the truth. In contrast, skeptics undermined the acquisition of such knowledge and did not believe in the existence of any kind of truth. The confrontations of these two groups have always constituted a part of the history of philosophy. Such a confrontation has been revived in contemporary philosophy as a result of the discussions which are made in modern epistemology both in Islamic philosophy and Western philosophy. On the one hand, contemporary Muslim philosophers have tried to defend the strong epistemological principles of Islamic philosophy through negating the views of skeptics. They believe in realism in epistemology and reject any interpretation of knowledge which is based on subjective idealism. On the other hand, at least some contemporary Western philosophers have tried to provide some responses to the questions posed by skeptics by developing a number of new views. In this comparative study, the author has tried to evaluate the attempts of a group of philosophers of each side in this regard. It is eventually concluded that the responses of Islamic philosophers to the posed questions enjoy a stronger basis both in the past and at present. Manuscript profile

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39 - Effects of Stoic Logic on the Development of the Concepts and Technical Terms of the Discussion of Conditional Propositions in the Islamic Period
Amin Shahverdi

Afnan and Sami al-Nishar believe that Islamic philosophers found access to the main texts of Stoic thinkers during the translation movement. Nevertheless, Josef van Ess maintains that Muslim philosophers were exposed to Stoic teachings in the course of the cultural inte More

Afnan and Sami al-Nishar believe that Islamic philosophers found access to the main texts of Stoic thinkers during the translation movement. Nevertheless, Josef van Ess maintains that Muslim philosophers were exposed to Stoic teachings in the course of the cultural interactions between Muslims and the residents of newly conquered regions. In the present paper, after criticizing these two ideas, the writer agrees with Dimitri Gutas’s view regarding the indirect impact of Stoic logical doctrines through the works of such logicians as Galen and Alexander of Aphrodisias. Then, by examining the concepts and technical terms which are employed by Stoic logicians in the analysis of conditional propositions and reasonings, he investigates the effects of such concepts and terms through the works of the above-mentioned logicians in the development of certain concepts such as conflict, necessity, and exception. Manuscript profile

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40 - An Evaluation and Pathology of the Components of Epistemology of the Modern Period in Human Sciences
Ali Karbalaei Pazooki Fatemeh Najafi Pazooki

The formation of modern human sciences which are presently taught at the academic centers of the world dates back to the modern period in the West; an era which is known as the period of the separation of science, religion, intellect, and faith from each other. The theo More

The formation of modern human sciences which are presently taught at the academic centers of the world dates back to the modern period in the West; an era which is known as the period of the separation of science, religion, intellect, and faith from each other. The theoretical principles of this field of knowledge are limited to matter from an ontological standpoint, to anthropology from a humanist standpoint, to secularism from an eschatological standpoint, and to sense perception, experience, verification, and instrumental intellect from an epistemological standpoint. The question is what the contexts and background of the formation of modern human sciences in the West are, and what epistemological, religious, psychological, and spiritual harms they might lead to. Following a descriptive-analytic design and through a historical review of the problem of knowledge in the West, the present study intends to revisit the epistemological factors influencing the formation of the human sciences of the modern period and their disadvantages. Restricting science to scientism; human being to humanism; the world of being to natural phenomena; acquisition of knowledge to sense perception, empiricism, causality, and pure rationalism, as well as focusing on an epistemological distinction between phenomena and things in-themselves, and ignoring inner sense and fitri (intrinsic) knowledge, intuitive intellect and revelation are among the significant factors which play roles in the formation of modern western human sciences. Moreover, they underlie the creation of epistemological, religious, and psychological crises; spiritual poverty; nihilism, and the like in the world today. Manuscript profile

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41 - Reflection of the Philosophy of Amesha Spenta in Suhrawardi’s Theory of Archetypes
Nadia Maftouni Morteza Darrudi Jawan

Following the method of content analysis, this study explores the extent of the direct and indirect effects and signs of five amesha spenta in the collection of Suhrawardi’s works. In this process, after establishing the general and particular features of amesha spenta More

Following the method of content analysis, this study explores the extent of the direct and indirect effects and signs of five amesha spenta in the collection of Suhrawardi’s works. In this process, after establishing the general and particular features of amesha spenta based on Zoroastrian sources, such as Avesta and Bandhesh, and other scientific and analytic texts, the authors have searched for them in Suhrawardi’s works. They have extracted and enumerated all the cases in which explicit references have been made to amesha spenta and their general and specific features. After calculating the frequency of the features and signs of each amesha spenta, they have provided a content and conceptual analysis for them. Among the findings of this study are determining the number of explicit references to amesha spenta and the relative order of the frequency of the signs based on the order of amesha spenta, referring to the five-fold amesha spenta as accidental intellects based on their archetypal functions, providing a collection of the strongest signs in Persian texts, and reminiscing about Iranian mythical heroes. Manuscript profile

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42 - A Study of Ibn Sina’s Encounter with Early Philosophers’ Views of the Whatness of Pleasure
Hoorieh Shojaee Baghini Einollah Khademi Amirhosein Mansori Noori

The whatness of pleasure is a topic which demands a thorough and accurate investigation. The study of this topic was also of particular importance in the view of Ibn Sina. A part of this investigation concerns his mode of encounter with the related views of his predeces More

The whatness of pleasure is a topic which demands a thorough and accurate investigation. The study of this topic was also of particular importance in the view of Ibn Sina. A part of this investigation concerns his mode of encounter with the related views of his predecessors. The purpose of this paper is to explore the development of early thinkers’ ideas regarding pleasure and the extent of their impact on Ibn Sina’s views. The findings of this study are two-fold: firstly, in his critical review of the definition provided by Zakariya al-Razi, Ibn Sina presents an accurate explanation of its defects. However, this critique has mostly been attributed to Fakhr al-Din Razi. Secondly, in his later examination of early thinkers’ views of pleasure, he benefits from the Second Teacher’s brief explanation regarding the definition of pleasure. Hence, he owes his insight in this respect to Farabi. Given the various criticisms of Razi’s definition, Ibn Sina overlooks it and, through resorting to Farabi’s ontological approach to the whatness of pleasure, adopts his view as the basis of his own definition. Next, based on his own Peripatetic and perfection-oriented principles, he completes his own definition of pleasure in his works so that the presented definition is later confirmed and accepted as the basis for the related discussions. Manuscript profile

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43 - Foreword
Hossein Kalbasi Ashtari

Religion Culture Iran

Religion Culture Iran Manuscript profile

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44 - Aristotelian and Avicennan Background of the Principles of Analogical Theology of Thomas Aquinas
Mohammad Mahdi Gorjian Mojtaba Afsharpour

Given its emphasis upon the text of the Holy Scripture, Thomas Aquinas’s theory of analogical theology is one of the most influential and multi-faceted theories regarding the knowledge of God and analysis of His names and attributes. Aquinas’s main purpose in discussing More

Given its emphasis upon the text of the Holy Scripture, Thomas Aquinas’s theory of analogical theology is one of the most influential and multi-faceted theories regarding the knowledge of God and analysis of His names and attributes. Aquinas’s main purpose in discussing this issue in both of his great works, Summa Theologia and Summa Contra Gentiles, was to predicate the perfectional attributes of all creatures, including human beings as the most perfect of them, on God. He believed that this is possible by employing an analogical method of predication as opposed to equivocation and unequivocation. In this way, he attained a knowledge of the names and attributes of the Truth that enabled him to leave the negative theology of the Middle Ages behind and, in this way, avoid the trap of assimilating the Truth to the created. The essential element of Aquinas’s analogical theology is the “principle of the perfections of cause and effect”. The perfections of effect have an apriori supreme presence in the cause. There are two other principles in his works called the “argument of degrees of perfection” and the “principle of the priority of cause to effect”. He insists on attributing all these three principles to Aristotle and Ibn Rushd in order to introduce his own analogical predication as being rooted in Aristotle’s philosophy. However, the truth is that Aristotle never made any explicit reference to any of the claims made by Aquinas. Rather, the idea of God’s being above perfection and pure good, in the sense that Pure Perfection embodies all perfections of finite things, is among Ibn Sina’s achievements and innovations in theological discussions. In fact, Ibn Rushd’s words in this regard explain Ibn Sina’s theories although he wrote them in his commentaries on Aristotle’s words. Manuscript profile

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45 - A Study of the Reason for the Unpopularity of Philosophy during the Umayyad Period in Andalusia
Musa Alreza Bakhshi Ostad Abdol Hosein Latifi

Under the reign of the Umayyad Dynasty, Andalusia managed to take the philosophical lead in Europe during a time when Europe was suffering from Medieval stasis. Moreover, it could compete with Baghdad over the leadership of the world of Islam, the peak of which was in t More

Under the reign of the Umayyad Dynasty, Andalusia managed to take the philosophical lead in Europe during a time when Europe was suffering from Medieval stasis. Moreover, it could compete with Baghdad over the leadership of the world of Islam, the peak of which was in the fourth century (AH). However, in spite of the scientific progress of Muslims and the favorable cultural atmosphere of this period, philosophy did not receive much attention and even had to deal with severe challenges. Accordingly, the authors of this paper decided to focus on this lack of attention to philosophy, which was not in conformity with the flourishing of Islamic civilization in Andalusia at that time, through analyzing the related historical resources and documents. Their findings indicate that, after conquering Andalusia, Muslims stepped into a land where the church had harshly suppressed rationalism. The same was also the case with the neighboring countries there. Nevertheless, the most important reason for the lack of interest in philosophy in Andalusia was the establishment of Maliki school of thought, which, following a Zahirite approach, did not allow rationalism to flourish there. Manuscript profile

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46 - Hakim Sabziwari’s Impact on the School of Tehran: Continuity of the Qajar Philosophical School of Isfahan
Mohammad Javad Sami Saeed Rahimian

The present study examines the quality of the realization of Islamic schools of philosophy in the Iranian cultural field between eighth and thirteenth centuries (AH). Initially, the authors discuss the development of such schools from the “Philosophical School of Shiraz More

The present study examines the quality of the realization of Islamic schools of philosophy in the Iranian cultural field between eighth and thirteenth centuries (AH). Initially, the authors discuss the development of such schools from the “Philosophical School of Shiraz (represented by Qutb al-Din Shirazi and Sadr al-Din Dashtaki) to the “School of Safavid Isfahan (represented by Mir Damad and Mulla Sadra) and from there to the School of Qajar Isfahan (represented by Mulla Ali Nuri and Mulla Isma’il Khwajavi), and finally to the “School of Tehran” (represented by Mulla Ali Mudarris Zunuzi, Mulla Mohammad Reza Ghomshei, and Hakim Jilwah). Then they deal with the key role of Hakim Sabziwari in the development of the third school in the School of Tehran. Clearly, because of the chosen period, there is no place for focusing on the schools preceding the philosophical school of Shiraz, such as “School of Maragheh” (represented by Khawaja Nasir al-Din Tusi) or the schools succeeding the School of Tehran, such as the “Neo-Sadrian School” (represented by ‘Allamah Tabataba’i). In line with the purpose of the study, the authors have tried to refer to the specific features of the four target schools, the social conditions dominating the society, and the reasons behind people’s referring to the distinguished philosophers and scholars of each school. Following a library method of research and a comparative design, this study demonstrates that the rulers’ coercion and cruelty and the scholars’ attempts at granting legitimacy to their acts and following them were the main causes of the creation of certain pseudo-parties and centers around spiritual authorities in the garb of philosophers and Sufis. Manuscript profile

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47 - A Comparative Study of Utopia in Islamic Thinkers: A Case Study of the Views of Khwajah Nasir al-Din Tusi and Ibn Sina
Mahdi Torkashvand Ali Khajeh Naieni

The negation of painful worldly affairs and trying to depict a purely good world in the mind of a human being who has experienced a descent from heaven to the earth has a long history. This thought has resulted in the development of the idea of Utopia by Western and Eas More

The negation of painful worldly affairs and trying to depict a purely good world in the mind of a human being who has experienced a descent from heaven to the earth has a long history. This thought has resulted in the development of the idea of Utopia by Western and Eastern thinkers. Khwajah Nasir al-Din Tusi and Ibn Sina are among the scholars who have theorized in this regard and elaborated on the various dimensions of their own Utopia. The present study was conducted using a descriptive design and examining the existing documents regarding Ibn Sina and Tusi’s views of Utopia. The results of the study indicate that the differences between their descriptions of Utopia pertain to their theoretical approach, their views of the kind of leadership and attributes of the head of Utopia, Ibn Sina’s hierarchical and class-oriented view, and an accurate view of the components of Utopia in Ibn Sina’s philosophy in comparison to Tusi, while they both agree with each other with respect to their worldviews, the conditions they set for attaining the leadership of Utopia, and compromising view of the existing status. Evidently, given the Islamic worldview of both thinkers, the findings of this study could be a useful first step for portraying an Islamic city. Manuscript profile

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48 - Suhrawardī’s View of the Logic; A Fundamental Variation from Aristotelian School
mostafa abedi jige

In contrast to Aristotelian tradition, in Suhrawardī’s philosophy, logic loses its instrumentality regarding knowledge and its place is established after the realization of wisdom. Aristotelian philosophy includes the whole human knowledge, except the principles of know More

In contrast to Aristotelian tradition, in Suhrawardī’s philosophy, logic loses its instrumentality regarding knowledge and its place is established after the realization of wisdom. Aristotelian philosophy includes the whole human knowledge, except the principles of knowledge, within the domain of acquired knowledge and considers knowledge to be a theoretical affair. However, through acknowledging the presential nature of knowledge, Suhrawardī extracts it from the realm of conceptual and acquired thought and maintains that it is primarily pre-theoretical. He initially attains wisdom through intuition and then adduces some arguments for it. Then, by a fundamental turn, he argues that conceptual thought is based on presential thought and emphasizes that the realm of presence is the criterion for the realm of acquisition. Manuscript profile

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49 - foreword
Hossein Kalbasi Ashtari

Borhan Jadal Plato Keratalous

Borhan Jadal Plato Keratalous Manuscript profile

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50 - Origins of the Notion of Bahman or Suhrawardi’s First Emanated
Nadia Maftouni Morteza Darrudi Jawan

The views of Suhrawardi can be traced in the philosophy of ancient Iran. One of such views was the belief in Bahman or the first emanated. Following the method of content analysis, the authors have extracted and examined the overt and covert effects of Bahman, which is More

The views of Suhrawardi can be traced in the philosophy of ancient Iran. One of such views was the belief in Bahman or the first emanated. Following the method of content analysis, the authors have extracted and examined the overt and covert effects of Bahman, which is considered to be the most supreme manifestation of Ahura Mazda in the view of Zoroastrians, in Suhrawardi’s works. After deducing the general and specific features of Bahman based on Zoroastrian sources, such as Avesta and Bundahishn, they have tried to locate them in Suhrawardi’s books. Following a thorough study of all of his works, they have extracted and counted all the direct references to Amesha Spenta and all the cases referring to the general and particular features of Bahman. After calculating the related frequencies, they have carried out a content analysis and conceptual study of the existing features and signs. The findings of this study reveal the number of direct references to AmeshaSpentaBahman in the studied texts. Moreover, they show that the term Bahman is used in the same sense as the first emanated or the First Intellect and, in contrast to other AmeshaSpenta, as the head of vertical intellects based on their archetypal functions. The writers also conclude that Suhrawardi’s books contain the largest collection of references to Bahman among all Persian texts, while reminiscing some of the Iranian mythological heroes. Among the general and particular features of Bahman or the first emanated, its unity with other AmeshaSpenta has the highest frequency. This is because all signs of AmeshaSpenta enjoy this characteristic, the outcomes of which include the coexistence of all signs of AmeshaSpenta with each other and the organization dominating them. This finding by itself demonstrates that Suhrawardi pays particular attention to the meanings and functions of AmeshaSpenta in his works. Manuscript profile

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51 - Kierkegaard and the Origin of Existentialist Religious Theorems
Fatemeh Mohammad Mohammad Akvan

The present paper explains the view of Kierkegaard, the prominent founding philosopher of existentialism, regarding religious teachings. Kierkegaard refers to three aesthetic, ethical, and religious spheres for human beings and maintains that there is a large distance b More

The present paper explains the view of Kierkegaard, the prominent founding philosopher of existentialism, regarding religious teachings. Kierkegaard refers to three aesthetic, ethical, and religious spheres for human beings and maintains that there is a large distance between the aesthetic and religious stages. Accordingly, in order to explain the process of development in these spheres, he uses such words as “pathos” and “leap of faith”. Kierkegaard’s discontinuous dialectics, when moving from one stage to the other, reveals that, firstly, these three-fold spheres can never unite with each other even if they co-exist for some time. Finally, there comes a time when, inevitably, one has to be chosen. Secondly, the quality of moving from one stage to the other is not logical and cannot be explained within a specific framework. When confronting the problem of religious faith, Kierkegaard does not allocate any place to the intellect and thought. In other words, he does not specify a certain time, place, and method so that individuals know when, where, and how they can reach the next stage. Rather, he believes that one must take risks in this process, do miracles, and follow the way without resorting to the intellect. Such risks cause a leap from the ethical sphere to the religious sphere, which is the highest level of an original life or existence; a leap which does not fit the framework of rational principles and, hence, cannot be perceived. Kierkegaard dedicates all his efforts in his works to demonstrating that the two spheres of religious belief and intellect are not only different but also in contrast to each other and, thus, one cannot evaluate religious concepts against the criterion of the intellect. Manuscript profile

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52 - Editor's Notes
Hossein Kalbasi Ashtari

Language Culture Civilation

Language Culture Civilation Manuscript profile

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53 - A Study of Idah al-Khayr al-Mahd and its Influence over the History of Islamic Philosophy
Gholamhossein Ahmadi Ahangar

The book al-Khayr al-mahd is inspired by Proclus’ Elements of Theology and, in spite of its small size, has exercised the greatest influence upon Islamic philosophy along with Athologia. In this treatise, Proclus has propounded several problems concerning the prime caus More

The book al-Khayr al-mahd is inspired by Proclus’ Elements of Theology and, in spite of its small size, has exercised the greatest influence upon Islamic philosophy along with Athologia. In this treatise, Proclus has propounded several problems concerning the prime cause, intellect, and soul, which are accepted by Muslim philosophers. Through posing the four elements of prime cause, existence, intellects, and souls in the cosmological theory of emanation based on effusion, as well as dividing each of the intellects and souls into primary and secondary ones and discussing them based on their ontological places and excellence, Proclus stands at a distance from Plotinus’ theory of emanation. The translation of al-Khayr al-mahd into Arabic granted it a more visible presence before Muslim philosophers because of its greater conformity with their religious and revealed thoughts. That is why we sometimes confront the same words and statements used in al-Khayr al-mahd in their works. For example, in ‘Amiri’s treatise of Fi al-m‘alim ilahiyyah, the principles and problems discussed in al-Khayr al-mahd have been presented in exactly the same form. However, they have been reflected in a new form in others’ works. In this paper, the writer has tried to demonstrate the influence of this book on Muslim philosophers. Manuscript profile

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54 - The Relationship between the Pillars of Wisdom and Utopia in Suhrawardi and Plato
Saeed Rahimian

The idea of utopia entails extensive discussions with a history as long as the history of humanity. Plato was the first philosopher who portrayed utopia in a philosophical mould. On the other hand, in the Islamic world, Farabi was the pioneer of this view and left it as More

The idea of utopia entails extensive discussions with a history as long as the history of humanity. Plato was the first philosopher who portrayed utopia in a philosophical mould. On the other hand, in the Islamic world, Farabi was the pioneer of this view and left it as a legacy to the thinkers living after him until today. Shaykh Shahab al-Din Suhrawardi is one of the philosophers who gives a specific direction to his philosophical thoughts in search of an ideal state; one that emerges from the heart of his Illuminationist ontology and epistemology. The present paper aims to explore this firm relationship and, given the place of Plato’s ideas in Suhrawardi’s philosophy, highlights the points of agreement and disagreement of these two thinkers in this regard. Considering the similarities between their views, particularly in cases such as man’s interest in a civil society, the conformity and harmony between their ideal state and the order of being and confining the ruling power to the people possessing the knowledge of the truths of the higher world, one cannot deny the independence of Suhrawardi’s philosophy, especially, with respect to the leadership of an ideal state and its leader’s attributes. Manuscript profile

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55 - Development of the Theory of Categories from Aristotle to Ibn Sina
Reza Rasuli Sharabiyani

Aristotle’s view of categories is not a merely linguistic one. His four-fold division of existents and referring to the features of being in the subject and being told in terms of the subject alongside each other indicate his ontological view of categories. In his eyes, More

Aristotle’s view of categories is not a merely linguistic one. His four-fold division of existents and referring to the features of being in the subject and being told in terms of the subject alongside each other indicate his ontological view of categories. In his eyes, they are the windows linking subject and object to each other. He poses the issue of categories to bring thought and reality together. Therefore, the goal of the laws of Aristotelian logic, in addition to analyzing the forms of thinking, is to explain the knowledge of reality as it is reflected in the human mind. The discussion of categories in Aristotle’s logical works functions as a window to the entrance of essentialism in logic and the dominance of Aristotelian metaphysics on his logic. This aspect weakens Aristotle’s logic in presenting and analyzing many propositions and syllogisms and makes the semantic aspect of this logic more prominent in comparison to its formal aspect. The theory of categories existed in logic books before Ibn Sina. In several cases in the book of categories of al-Shifa, he mentions that there is no place for the discussion of categories in logic and puts it aside in the logic section of al-Isharat. Unlike Aristotle, Ibn Sina’s heedlessness of categories can reveal formalization in logic and its deviation from Aristotle’s essentialism and semanticism. Manuscript profile

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56 - A Study of Hermes in Suhrawardi’s Thoughts
Seyyedeh Behnaz Hosseini

In Tabari sources, Hermes is one of the grandchildren of Sheth, the son of Adam. After these two people, he was the first to become a prophet. In Suhrawardi’s view, the history of philosophy and thought begins with Hermes. The Sufis have been truly called the most impor More

In Tabari sources, Hermes is one of the grandchildren of Sheth, the son of Adam. After these two people, he was the first to become a prophet. In Suhrawardi’s view, the history of philosophy and thought begins with Hermes. The Sufis have been truly called the most important heirs to Hermetic tradition among Muslims. In many sources, the names of such figures as Hallaj and Suhrawardi have been placed among the names of the followers of this tradition. Moreover, Hermetic ideas have penetrated into the world of Islam through some sciences such as medicine, astronomy, alchemy, and the like. As a result, a group of Muslim writers, historians, gnostics, and philosophers have considered Hermes to be a pioneer in the field of wisdom and various sciences. Shahab al-Din Suhrawardi, the founder of Illuminationist philosophy in the world of Islam, is one of the representatives of this Iranian symbolic and esoteric, interpretive tradition, which, in addition to honoring Hermes’ character, tries to connect him with Iranian mythology. He attributes some names derived from his own philosophical terms to Hermes, such as tiba‘ tam (perfect natures). Suhrawardi considers himself an heir to Hermetic wisdom. Through a study of Hermes in Greek mythology and later sources, this paper intends to show how he entered the domain of Islamic prophethood. Manuscript profile

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57 - Substantiality of the Soul in Ibn Sina and Mulla Sadra
Maliheh Saberi Najafabadi

One of the important problems of Islamic philosophy is the demonstration of the substantiality of the soul. In spite of their agreement concerning the substantiality of the soul, Mulla Sadra and Ibn Sina have some basic disagreements in the interpretation and explanatio More

One of the important problems of Islamic philosophy is the demonstration of the substantiality of the soul. In spite of their agreement concerning the substantiality of the soul, Mulla Sadra and Ibn Sina have some basic disagreements in the interpretation and explanation of this principle. The extent of these disagreements has also stretched to some critical issues such the explanation of the soul, its changes, and its relationship with other faculties, which are the focus of this paper. According to Ibn Sina, possible beings consist of two analytic-rational components, that is, existence and quiddity. He also maintains that the source of the division of categories, under which substance and accident fall, is quiddity itself. The difference between substance and accident also lies in the fact that existence is substance by itself, and existence is accident through the other. Therefore, the soul is an immaterial substance that performs voluntary administrative acts and perceives universal affairs. It has some branches or faculties through which it carries out its acts. In this approach, the differences among human souls, from their highest to lowest levels, are rooted in accidents, and no change occurs in their substance. In Mulla Sadra’s view, too, accident has no independence before substance, thus it is a dependent truth enjoying an existence depending on the other. Nevertheless, based on the principle of the principiality of existence, the criterion for individuation is existence; an existence which underlies the individuation of a subject and is the referent for substance itself and a referent for all accidents. In other words, it is a single existence that is a referent for man with various accidents. The soul is a substance commensurate with existence and enjoys an essential and graded existence the accidents of which are considered to be the grades of this truth. The soul’s faculties are its modes and grades, and the perfections attained by the soul originate in its unity with perceptive forms. Manuscript profile

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58 - Editor's Notes
Hossein Kalbasi Ashtari

Language Being Existence the Relation between Language and Existence

Language Being Existence the Relation between Language and Existence Manuscript profile

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59 - The Role of Muslim Peripatetics in the Development of Aristotelian Logic
Akbar Faydei

Before Aristotle, some of the topics in the science of logic had appeared in a scattered form in the words of the great Zeno, Plato, Socrates, and some Sophists. However, Aristotle was the first scholar to compile theoretical logic and classify its topics into related p More

Before Aristotle, some of the topics in the science of logic had appeared in a scattered form in the words of the great Zeno, Plato, Socrates, and some Sophists. However, Aristotle was the first scholar to compile theoretical logic and classify its topics into related parts and chapters in a book. Based on his own epistemological principles, he propounded predicative logic. From among his most important logical ideas, we can refer to predicative reasoning and categorical syllogism. After Aristotle, another school of logic entitled Stoic-Megarian was developed in Greece by other logicians such as Philo, Diodorus, Megari, Zeno, and Chrysippus. Unlike Aristotelian logic, this new school dealt with conditional logic. Megarians’ detection of compound conditional syllogisms and Stoics’ detection of other compound syllogisms, such as conjunctive and disjunctive propositions and the forms of connected and disconnected syllogisms, created conditional logic. Therefore, the logical legacy of Greece consists of two Aristotelian and Stoic-Megarian Schools. Muslim Peripatetics, who were well-aware of Greeks’ logical legacy, diverted from the method of Greek philosophers in devising the science of logic. In addition to reducing some logical problems, such as the problem of categories, the differentiated discussion of poetry, rhetoric, and dialectics, as well as some changes in other areas such as conversion, and descriptive definitions, they played an influential role in the development and advancement of the science of logic. In this paper, some of these changes have been discussed. Manuscript profile

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60 - A Different Version of Immortality in Plato’s Symposium
Hamidreza Mahboobi Arani

A well-established and common view in Plato’s philosophy is that the immortality of the soul after death is a persistent and fixed type of immortality. The human soul, or at least an important part of it, which is the same intellect, is a substance of a different type a More

A well-established and common view in Plato’s philosophy is that the immortality of the soul after death is a persistent and fixed type of immortality. The human soul, or at least an important part of it, which is the same intellect, is a substance of a different type and from a different world, which remains alive after death. However, Plato’s Symposium portrays a perspective of immortality that, through creating a phenomenological image of the soul and attributing the tendency for immortality to Eros, considers the soul to be vulnerable to change. Hence, he maintains that the immortality of the soul is different from the common sense interpretation of this concept. The present paper argues that, in order to understand and interpret Plato’s intended meaning of immortality in Symposium, it is necessary to pay careful attention to some of his remarks in this regard, as well as to his discussions of birth and education, and remembrance and reminiscence. In this way, one could infer a dynamic and creative model of immortality which neither necessitates the after-death subsistence of the identical soul, which enjoys the passive and stagnant introversion of the Ideas, nor presupposes the existence of a soul of another type. The present paper, while referring to and describing Plato’s four-fold model of immortality, explains their important, similar, and, in some cases, different characteristics. It also demonstrates that this immortality is in permanent unity with the creation of certain words regarding true virtue or its images and life in the memory of future generations and indirectly affects the world affairs. Manuscript profile

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61 - An Ontological Explanation of the Relationship between the Good and Destiny in Plotinian Philosophy
Seyed Mohammad Naghib Mohammad Akvan

The Good is the first of the three hypostases in Plotinian philosophy and is considered to be the Good in two ways: in the arc of descent as the efficient cause and in the arc of ascent as the final cause of all beings. The Intellect is the first manifestation of the Go More

The Good is the first of the three hypostases in Plotinian philosophy and is considered to be the Good in two ways: in the arc of descent as the efficient cause and in the arc of ascent as the final cause of all beings. The Intellect is the first manifestation of the Good and is, at the same time, the same as both intellection and existence. It enjoys both an ontological and an epistemological aspect. The Intellect supervises the world of being and all its levels; in other words, the world is administered according to the decrees, measures, plans, and programs that the Intellect has devised and determined for it. Man’s fate is no exception to this rule; however, since, based on the Intellect’s pre-destined rules, they enjoy free will, they are not simply passive beings in the order of creation. Rather, relying on their free will and while uniting with the Good, they can achieve eternal happiness. Therefore, in Plotinus’ view, the whole world of being is blessed with the Good as the agent and end of creation. This paper examines the relationship between the Good and destiny and concludes that the Good administers the intelligible and sensible worlds through the Intellect. Manuscript profile

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62 - The Philosophical-Historical Development of the Equivalents of Aristotle’s Hyle
Hojjatullah Askarizadeh Seyyed Ebrahim Musavi Malek Hosseini

In this paper, the authors examine and discuss the different equivalents of the Aristotelean term of hyle in Latin, Arabic, and Persianin terms of their etymological and conceptual features. Moreover, they try to reveal the relationship between this concept and the conc More

In this paper, the authors examine and discuss the different equivalents of the Aristotelean term of hyle in Latin, Arabic, and Persianin terms of their etymological and conceptual features. Moreover, they try to reveal the relationship between this concept and the concept of mother and female gender in Old Persian. It seems that the early translators of Greek philosophy, because of the conceptual relationships between hyle and mother in the writings of Plato and Aristotle, chose some equivalents for hyle which derived from the meanings of mother and female gender. This is particularly important because the concept of philosophical matter which is rooted in Aristotle’s philosophy and is commonly used today, especially in empirical sciences, is rooted in the concepts of mother and female gender in terms of its historical and philosophical background. This has prompted the early translators of Greek philosophy who were looking for near equivalents for the Greek hyle to consider this relationship and create terms which could transfer the meaning of this word correctly. However, this does not mean that in Aristotle’s philosophy, similar to some mythological beliefs, hyle indicates that the world is the offspring of the intimacy of male and female elements. Rather, it means that among ancient Greeks, including Aristotle and Plato, the female gender has been introduced as the receptacle of form in the birth of human beings and animals. Manuscript profile

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63 - A Study of the Development of the Subject of Metaphysics in Francisco Suárez
Asghar Fathi Emadabadi Ali Karbasizadeh Isfahani

Fancisco Suárez (1548-1617) was the last great scholastic philosopher of the Western Renaissance. He opened up new horizons for his contemporary Scholars regarding certain philosophical and metaphysical discussions. Although he was an advocate of Aristotelian- Thomistic More

Fancisco Suárez (1548-1617) was the last great scholastic philosopher of the Western Renaissance. He opened up new horizons for his contemporary Scholars regarding certain philosophical and metaphysical discussions. Although he was an advocate of Aristotelian- Thomistic tradition, he believed that metaphysics was in demand of certain fundamental modifications. Aristotle, on the one hand, emphasized the unity of the subject of science and, on the other hand, spoke as if he believed in the existence of multiple subjects for metaphysics. Post-Aristotle philosophers, from Greek and Alexandrian philosophers to Islamic and Christian ones, particularly and most importantly Ibn Sīnā, made great efforts to remove the existing inconsistencies. In his Disputationes Metaphysicae (Metaphysical Disputations), through examining the various ideas that had been propounded in this regard until his time, Suárez presented a new approach and introduced “being qua being” as the subject of metaphysics. In order to further explain his view, he elaborated on certain expressions such as “real being” as opposed to actual being and “mental being” as opposed to formal being. Moreover, he maintained that real being is a “general mental concept of being in its nominal sense”. In this paper, through a meticulous study of the meaning of “real being” in Suárez’s view, the authors intend to investigate and evaluate his place in the tradition and history of philosophy regarding the subject of metaphysics. Manuscript profile

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64 - Place and Time of Mullā Muḥammad Kaẓīm Hezārjarībī in the History of Rational Sciences with an Emphasis on the Content of Theological Manuscripts
Ali Ghanbarian Abbas Bakhshande Bali

One of the Shi‘ite thinkers whose scientific contributions have rarely been explored is Mullā Muḥammad Kaẓim Hezārjarībī Astarābādī (died in 1234 AH). He was one of the Shi‘ite scholars of the late Zand and early Qajar periods who conducted several scientific studies in More

One of the Shi‘ite thinkers whose scientific contributions have rarely been explored is Mullā Muḥammad Kaẓim Hezārjarībī Astarābādī (died in 1234 AH). He was one of the Shi‘ite scholars of the late Zand and early Qajar periods who conducted several scientific studies in different fields of theology, particularly on Islamic beliefs. Hezārjarībī’s works have never been published; however, a great number of his manuscripts in Persian and Arabic are available today. His writings and translations have played a significant role in the dissemination and expansion of the Shi‘ite culture and philosophy. When composing, he always paid attention to the point that his writings should be readable by all the people interested in the field of theology, and that is why most of his works are written in Persian. Following a descriptive-analytic method and relying on library resources, particularly, a number of critically corrected manuscripts, the authors of this paper aim to investigate the nature and content of Hezārjarībī’s most important discussions regarding theology. The findings of this study demonstrate that, in his view, theology is intrinsic while Islam is not. In order to prove the existence of God, he resorted to a variety of proofs such as possibility and necessity, order, and fiṭrah (human nature) arguments. Moreover, he tried to provide the correct meanings of some divine attributes such as will, justice, and wisdom to remove some theological ambiguities. Manuscript profile

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65 - Challenges of Aristotelian Matter and Potency in Muslim Philosophers’ Discussions
Hojjatullah Askarizadeh Seyyed Ebrahim Musavi Malek Hosseini

In the modern period, contemporary researchers of Aristotle’s philosophy have paid greater attention to the concept of prime matter, which is surrounded by a number of challenging discussions. In this paper, the authors have compared the two concepts of matter and poten More

In the modern period, contemporary researchers of Aristotle’s philosophy have paid greater attention to the concept of prime matter, which is surrounded by a number of challenging discussions. In this paper, the authors have compared the two concepts of matter and potency, which are very close to each other, in Aristotle’s philosophy. Researchers have generally ignored the duality and separation of these two concepts from each other, while attending to their differences makes the explanation of the challenging issues in relation to Aristotelian prime matter much easier. One of such distinctions is the hypokeimenon or substratum nature of Aristotelian matter which prevents its confusion with the concept of potency due to its independence. In Aristotle’s writings, the terms hyle and dunamis (matter and potential) have always been used alongside each other, which has made it difficult to distinguish them from each other. However, it must be taken into consideration that this distinction plays a fundamental role in understanding prime matter and the related challenging problems, such as the quality of the combination of matter and form and the identity of new substance. Some philosophers, such as Ibn Sīnā, have paid attention to the various features of matter and differentiated them from each other. Among contemporary philosophers, Murtaḍa Muṭahharī has also posed some discussions in this regard, which are emphasized in this paper. An analysis of such views demonstrates that prime matter cannot be merely the same as absolute potency; rather, it is also a loci for receiving form. Hence, based on Aristotelian principles, the survival of prime matter is necessary. Manuscript profile

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66 - A Comparison of the Views of Suhrawardī and Mullā Ṣadrā on Khosravani Perfect Man
Zahra Lotfi’ Abdollah Salavati

Suhrawardī’s light-oriented philosophy interprets spiritual wayfaring as the intuition of Nūr al-anwār (Light of all lights) within the framework of different levels and luminous realms. Nūr al-anwār illuminates the world and rules a kingdom. It is referred to as khvare More

Suhrawardī’s light-oriented philosophy interprets spiritual wayfaring as the intuition of Nūr al-anwār (Light of all lights) within the framework of different levels and luminous realms. Nūr al-anwār illuminates the world and rules a kingdom. It is referred to as khvarenah (divine mystical force) in Avesta and as Farr (glory and splendor) in Persian. Farr is a divine gift that makes the individual who is blessed with it worthy of caliphate and kingship. Suhrawardī stipulates that the perfect man, who has been called with names such as Espahbodi Noor, Minavi (spiritual) Lights, Chief of Elements, Avarman Aspahr Angel, and Ravanbakhsh (Soul Giver), enjoys the station of royal glory, kingship, and charisma. He also believes that the highest position belongs to those kings whose existential realm is the locus of a collection of divine lights, glory, and beauty. In fact, they are the manifestation of divine perfection on Earth. In contrast, Mullā Ṣadrā follows an ontological approach to the features of perfect man. He believes that the perfect man is the all-showing mirror of the Truth and divine names and attributes and maintains that it is their nominal comprehensiveness which makes them worthy of divine vicegerency. Given the different basic principles of light and existence in these two philosophical schools, the present paper mainly aims to provide an answer to the questions of who a perfect man is and what their referents are. Mullā Ṣadrā considers existence to be principial and examines the whole being and place following an ontological approach and, thus, sees a perfect man as an individual who has reached the supreme level of existence and perfect intellectual immateriality. However, Suhrawardī holds that a typical perfect man could be any individual who has reached the level of royal glory and intuition. Manuscript profile

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67 - Place of the First Cause in Francisco Suarez’s Metaphysics
Hossein Kalbasi Ashtari

In the history of philosophy and philosophers’ thoughts, God has been discussed differently as the unmoved mover, thought of thought, cause of causes, and the first cause. One of the philosophers who greatly influenced the reformist movements of the church in the 16 and More

In the history of philosophy and philosophers’ thoughts, God has been discussed differently as the unmoved mover, thought of thought, cause of causes, and the first cause. One of the philosophers who greatly influenced the reformist movements of the church in the 16 and 17 centuries was Fancisco Suarez. His book of Metaphysical Disputations, which comprises 54 disputations on some topics such as general ontology and causes and particular ontology and types of cause, holds a supreme place in the history of philosophy. The present study aims to provide an answer to the questions of what place Suarez has allocated to the discussion of God, and which approach he follows in discussing Him. Another question here is whether one can conceptually reduce all the various names that he has chosen for God based on his own philosophy to a single concept. The findings of the study reveal that Suarez considered three places for God: God as the Efficient Cause, God as the Final Cause (in the first volume of Metaphysical Disputations), and God as Being (in the second volume of the same book). Given Suarez’s definition and explanation for each of these titles, all of them can be explained in terms of an ontological concept and meaning. He follows a philosophical approach to all three stations; however, he also adopts a theological approach to discussing God in the third one and connects the discussion of God to the text of the Holy Book. Manuscript profile

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68 - Methodology of Great Muslim Philosophers’ Encounter with the Translation Trend of the Abbassid Period
Seyyed Mohammadali Dibaji

Researchers in the field of Islamic studies in the West have chosen the name of “Translation Movement” to refer to the trend of the translation of the books of different nations into Arabic during the Abbasid period. This trend, which continued for two centuries in diff More

Researchers in the field of Islamic studies in the West have chosen the name of “Translation Movement” to refer to the trend of the translation of the books of different nations into Arabic during the Abbasid period. This trend, which continued for two centuries in different spontaneous or guided forms, received some reactions from the Islamic society. One of the important questions in this regard is what the attitude of the distinguished Muslim philosophers of that period, particularly al-Kindī, Fārābī and Ibn Sīnā, was to this movement. The present study indicates that, unlike the common response in the historiography of the translation trend, instead of a translation movement, during this time we are faced with a philosophical movement alongside a scientific one in the history of Islam. The philosophers mentioned above separated their judgments of three problems, namely, translation, translators and interpreters, and translated and interpreted works, from each other. Based on their own philosophical movement, which was in conformity with the principles of Islamic thought, they had three methodological, reformist, and critical reactions to this trend. They evaluated the translated works based on Islamic philosophical theorems and benefitted from them with some innovations in their own philosophical systems. Manuscript profile

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69 - Epistemological Functions of Mimesis in Thomas Aquinas
Afra Khakzad Hadi Rabiei Mohammad Akvan

Thomas Aquinas, who was inspired with Aristotle’s philosophy in developing some of his views, followed his path in considering art as a kind of imitation. However, the concept of imitation for him was not a purely Aristotelian one; rather, it was also influenced by the More

Thomas Aquinas, who was inspired with Aristotle’s philosophy in developing some of his views, followed his path in considering art as a kind of imitation. However, the concept of imitation for him was not a purely Aristotelian one; rather, it was also influenced by the viewpoints of some thinkers such as Augustine and Pseudo-Dionysios the Areopagite. He employed mimesis in the texture of Christian theological discussions as well as in relation to the issues related to the metaphorical language of holy texts. Therefore, the concept of mimesis in Aquinas’ view was faced with an epistemological dilemma. On the one hand, it could result in both anxiety and relaxation in addressees or perhaps, through affecting their imagination, distract them from the path of rationality. On the other hand, it seems that the language of the Holy Book, which has been written for leading its addressees to the path of intellection and religiosity, shares the same features of the language of artistic works. Different types of mimesis have been used in the Holy Book and, more importantly, the relationship between the world of being and God is explained there on the basis of the concept of mimesis or imitation. In this paper, through analyzing the views of Aquinas and his references to such philosophers as Aristotle, Augustine, and Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite, the authors try to provide a clear explanation of the concept of mimesis and the epistemological functions of artistic imitation in Thomism. Manuscript profile

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70 - Hume’s and Kant’s Epistemological Critique of Metaphysics
حامد احتشامی SSeyyed Mohammad Hakak

Metaphysics is a term which was used by the compilers of Aristotle’s works for a part of them that appeared after the book of Physics. Later it was used as the title of the science which Aristotle dealt with in that section; a science that discusses the principles of ex More

Metaphysics is a term which was used by the compilers of Aristotle’s works for a part of them that appeared after the book of Physics. Later it was used as the title of the science which Aristotle dealt with in that section; a science that discusses the principles of existent qua existent. Since it delves into some of the fundamental problems of human beings such as God, self, and free will, this discipline has always been the main representative of philosophy. It is, in fact, only in the modern era that epistemology has gained more importance than metaphysics; moreover, some philosophers such as David Hume and Emanuel Kant have questioned its validity. In Hume’s view, metaphysics is an absurd field of science because its concepts are meaningless. In Kant’s view, metaphysical concepts and, thus, the related propositions are meaningful; however, it is impossible for theoretical wisdom to tackle them, and the solutions for metaphysical problems should be sought in the realm of practical wisdom or ethics. This paper reports and evaluates the viewpoints of these two philosophers in relation to metaphysics. Manuscript profile

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71 - Analytical Study of traversal and cutting movement in the View of Ibn Sina and Mulla Sadra
Ahmad Shakibaie Mansur Imanpour

Ibn Sina's and Mulla Sadra's use of traversal & cutting movement led to ambiguity in the movement existance. In this research, in order to eliminate this ambiguity, we have addressed the following: One, Ibn Sina's arguments for introducing two definite meanings of motio More

Ibn Sina's and Mulla Sadra's use of traversal & cutting movement led to ambiguity in the movement existance. In this research, in order to eliminate this ambiguity, we have addressed the following: One, Ibn Sina's arguments for introducing two definite meanings of motion, which are the responses to the bugs inflicted on the existence of motion and the reason for the very nature of motion; His arrangements have been explained in that they are the separation of the first perfection from the second, as well as the separation of the connection from the movement. After answering the problems raised by Ibn Sina's point of view it is clear that Mulla Sadra has succeeded in completing Ibn Sina's method by bringing forward the discussion of the Transcendent Philosophy, but Mulla Sadra has not explicitly proved the existence of a definite existence by justifying it on the basis of the principiality of existence Manuscript profile

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72 - Challenges of two genres of tragedy and comedy from Avicenna's point of view according to Aristotle's poetic view
Farideh Daliri Esmail BaniArdalan Amir Maziyar

Aristotle's theory of poetry entered the realm of Iranian thought with the theme that the genres of tragedy and comedy seek to imitate and mimesis virtues and vices. Aristotle's treatise on poetry, despite its role in shaping Western theater, had no effect on the worl More

Aristotle's theory of poetry entered the realm of Iranian thought with the theme that the genres of tragedy and comedy seek to imitate and mimesis virtues and vices. Aristotle's treatise on poetry, despite its role in shaping Western theater, had no effect on the world of Persian poetry. It is necessary that the theater comes from the heart of Greek ontology is a reminder of the need for Iranian drama to have a poetic outlook on Iranian culture. This book has been translated and adapted many times as a reference treatise, and one of the most prominent adaptations is Avicenna's poetry. Although the Avicenna's poetry is a report on Aristotle's poetry, he did not merely suffice to summarize it. The fundamental feature of his work is dealing with the essence of poetry, imitation or imagination. His poetry has new features, points and theories. The fundamental motive of this research is to read Avicenna's approach to the Greek sage Poetics and to study his poetry based on the main genres of Aristotle's Poetics treatise. The passage to this goal with an analytical-descriptive approach and data collection method is a library in which the researcher has achieved the theories of two Greek and Iranian scholars with the intention of Avicenna in writing iranian poetry poetics Manuscript profile

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73 - Typology of Deism in the 17th and 18th Centuries Based on Samuel Clarke’s Classification
Mohammad Mohamadinia Mohamad Ali Abdollahi Hossein Saberi

Deism refers to a philosophical and theological view of God, Man, and religion. The present paper aims to provide a conceptual analysis of Deism in the 17th and 18th centuries through exploring its etymology and following an analytic-descriptive method. Moreover, it is More

Deism refers to a philosophical and theological view of God, Man, and religion. The present paper aims to provide a conceptual analysis of Deism in the 17th and 18th centuries through exploring its etymology and following an analytic-descriptive method. Moreover, it is intended to present a general classification of Deism based on Clarke’s classification. An encyclopedic definition of deism suffers from ambiguity, and a reference to etymological dictionaries reveals that the etymological subtleties of this term have not been taken into consideration in the conversion of dues into deism. However, through Clarke’s classification, one can develop a better grasp of the distinction of the deism of his time from theism and its different types. Clarke’s four-fold classification, as the first comprehensive report of deism, claims that the proximity and similarity of deism to Christianity, from the first type to the fourth type, proceeds stepwise from a minimum to a maximum. Deists of the first type reject divine providence but believe in unity, creation, and God’s knowledge. The second group of deists, while believing in the deistic propositions of this type, consider physical laws to be ruled by divine providence but reject its rule over ethical laws. The third group believe that God’s providence is related to His moral perfections, and He governs the world relying on His moral attributes including justice, benevolence, and honesty. Finally, deists of the fourth type, in addition to the above doctrines, believe in the immortality of the soul and otherworldly reward and punishment. According to Clarke, all types of modern deism deny the Christian revelation, and one of the main differences from revealed religions is conceptology and believing in divine revelation. Manuscript profile

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74 - A Comparative Study of Poetics of Aristotle and Ibn Sīnā Regarding the Nature of Poetry
Farideh Daliri Esmail BaniArdalan Amir Maziyar

The nature and definition of poetry has always attracted the attention of literary thinkers in the field of philosophy. Aristotle’s Poetics is one of the greatest works on the content and structural criticisms of poetry. Given his Greek culture, Aristotle believes that More

The nature and definition of poetry has always attracted the attention of literary thinkers in the field of philosophy. Aristotle’s Poetics is one of the greatest works on the content and structural criticisms of poetry. Given his Greek culture, Aristotle believes that tragedy is an imitation of an action and a kind of dramatic art which results in catharsis. In Islamic tradition, the familiarity with Aristotle’s Poetics began from the third and fourth centuries (AH) through the related translations and abridged versions. During the same century, Fārābī and then Ibn Sīnā began analyzing and commenting on Poetics in order to explore Aristotle’s views in the realm of poetry. The most important abridgement of this treatise and commentary on it were made by Ibn Sīnā under the influence of Fārābī. In Ibn Sīnā’s treatise the concept of poetry is different from that in the field of conventional poetry. Imitation is the essence of poetry whereby imagination has an efficient presence. While trying to compare the nature of poetry in the Poetics section of Ibn Sīnā’s al-Shifā and Aristotle’s Poetics, this study aims to explain Ibn Sīnā’s view of poetry and his definition of poetry and its components and demonstrate the proximity between his standpoints in this regard with those of Aristotle. The authors have employed an analytic-descriptive and comparative approach to conduct this study. Manuscript profile

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75 - Dilthey’s Lifeworld, Mullā Ṣadrā’s Transcendent Philosophy, and the Possibility of Transcendent Human Sciences
Ali Fathi

The influential role of Dilthey is unparalled in theories in the field of human sciences. He contrasted methodological hermeneutics with the positivist method of natural sciences and stated that, as all natural sciences share a single method, hermeneutics functions as a More

The influential role of Dilthey is unparalled in theories in the field of human sciences. He contrasted methodological hermeneutics with the positivist method of natural sciences and stated that, as all natural sciences share a single method, hermeneutics functions as a method employed by all human sciences. Through distinguishing human and natural sciences from each other and in order to emphasize that each enjoys an independent identity and demonstrate that the concerns of the two fields are different from each other, Dilthey stipulated that human sciences deal with the world of life, lived experience, or the same lifeworld. The world of nature is a mechanical one, while the living world or life world is alive and dynamic and, thus, the method of treating it is different from that of natural sciences. Using a comparative method, in this paper the author has tried to use the concept of lifeworld in Dilthey’s philosophy as an incentive to explore Mullā Ṣadrā’s Transcendent Philosophy. Moreover, relying on some of his philosophical principles, such as the principiality of existence, gradation of existence, and the trans-substantial motion as well as his explanation of the concept of free will, developmental process of the soul, graded unity of the knower and the known, and the theory of t’awīl, the author has discussed the concept of “transcendent life” in Mullā Ṣadrā’s philosophy. Finally, he has tried to demonstrate how one could explain the necessary conditions for the possibility of “transcendent human sciences” in the light of the above-mentioned principles and concepts. Manuscript profile

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76 - A Study of the Philosophical Elements of Platonic-Plotinian Tradition in Khwājah Naṣīr al-Dīn Ṭūsī’s Philosophy
Seyed Morteza Honarmand

After the rise of Islam, philosophy and wisdom in Iran and in other corners of the world of Islam were united with Greek philosophy and interacted with it through the Translation Movement. Khwājah Naṣīr al-Dīn Ṭūsī was of the prominent thinkers of the world of Islam who More

After the rise of Islam, philosophy and wisdom in Iran and in other corners of the world of Islam were united with Greek philosophy and interacted with it through the Translation Movement. Khwājah Naṣīr al-Dīn Ṭūsī was of the prominent thinkers of the world of Islam who became familiar with Greek philosophy and enriched it in the light of his innovations through the Peripatetic Philosophy and the works of Fārābī and Ibn Sīnā. Now, the question is which of the philosophical elements of Greek wisdom, particularly the Platonic-Plotinian tradition, is more visible in Ṭūsī’s philosophical-kalāmī thoughts. This study, which was carried out following a descriptive-analytic method and through exploring Ṭūsī’s works, concludes that this presence and similarity have emerged in different forms, including: 1) complete acceptance of Greek views without any change though with some displacement of Greek views, such as the most logical problems, the discussion of the ten-fold categories, the four-fold causes, and classifications of sciences; 2) completion, change, and addition of some arguments for demonstrating the previous views, such as the problem of impossibility of endless chain, immateriality of the soul, proving the Necessary, oneness of the Necessary, impossibility of the emanation of many from the one, union of the intellect and intelligible, and the substantial nature of archetypes, and 3) the change of the content and nature of Greek views while preserving their old names, such as Platonic Ideas. Manuscript profile

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77 - Value of Philosophia Prima in Kant and ‘Allāmah Ṭabāṭabā’ī
Armin Mansouri Abbas Izadpanah

20.1001.1.20089589.1400.11.4.6.5

The present study investigates the scientific value of philosophia prima from the epistemological perspectives of Kant and ‘Allāmah Ṭabāṭabā’ī. As a philosopher whose standpoints were under the influence of other sciences and, due to the conditions of his time, he sided More

The present study investigates the scientific value of philosophia prima from the epistemological perspectives of Kant and ‘Allāmah Ṭabāṭabā’ī. As a philosopher whose standpoints were under the influence of other sciences and, due to the conditions of his time, he sided with both empiricism and rationalism, Kant tried to solve the conflicts between these two schools relying on apriori synthetic propositions. Finally, he argued that, firstly, knowledge is acquired through sense perception and, secondly, it is limited to phenomena. Hence, he concluded that, while metaphysics cannot be denied, the existence of scientific propositions of philosophia prima are not epistemologically possible. Nevertheless, based on the ideas that, apart from sensible knowledge, pure rational knowledge can also be demonstrated, and that knowledge includes not only phenomenon but also essence, ‘Allāmah Ṭabāṭabā’ī believed that philosophia prima enjoys epistemological value in terms of its demonstrative method, subject, and problems. He places it on the top of all human sciences and considers all of its propositions and achievement to be certain and scientific. Manuscript profile

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78 - Analytic Philosophy and the Charge of Anti-Historicity
Mohammad Saeid Abdollahi Mohamad Ali Abdollahi

20.1001.1.20089589.1400.11.4.3.2

According to some philosophers, not heeding historicity is one of the characteristics of analytic philosophy in comparison to other philosophical schools. That is why analytic philosophers are always being accused of ignoring historicity and blamed for this charge. Cont More

According to some philosophers, not heeding historicity is one of the characteristics of analytic philosophy in comparison to other philosophical schools. That is why analytic philosophers are always being accused of ignoring historicity and blamed for this charge. Continental and traditionalist philosophers are unanimous in this regard. However, the question is whether the critics of analytic philosophy can support this accusation with sufficient and convincing arguments, or whether not taking heed of history is a baseless claim rooted in an incorrect perception and insufficient knowledge of this philosophical movement. This paper is intended to explain the critic’s claims, arguments, and proofs as to historical ignorance in analytic philosophy, on the one hand, and to describe the attention and accuracy invested in analytic philosophers’ view of history of philosophy and their arguments. The authors emphasize that, firstly, one must distinguish between essential, instrumental, and weak types of historicity. Analytic philosophers might reject essential historicity but accept a kind of weak historicity. Secondly, an emphasis on the distinction of the history of philosophical problems from history of philosophy should not be understood in the sense of anti-historicity or equating the past and presence. Manuscript profile

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79 - Anthropological Principles of Hobbes and Spinoza on Government (A Historical Overview)
Bayan Karimy Seyyed Mustafa Shahraeini

20.1001.1.20089589.1400.12.1.4.0

Hobbes and Spinoza are among the philosophers who believe in the necessity of dealing with political philosophy. They maintain that their political philosophies are systematically related to metaphysics and the anthropology that originates in it. In this regard, their v More

Hobbes and Spinoza are among the philosophers who believe in the necessity of dealing with political philosophy. They maintain that their political philosophies are systematically related to metaphysics and the anthropology that originates in it. In this regard, their views are clearly different from those of their predecessors and even from those of Descartes, who is almost contemporary with them. Spinoza has been influenced by Hobbes in some respects; however, because of the differences between the logic and general philosophy of each of them, there are some noteworthy differences between these two philosophers’ anthropological interpretations and the functions of their political philosophy. The main purpose of the present paper is to highlight the historical background of political philosophy in ancient Greece, particularly during the Middle Ages. While challenging this historical background, it also aims to discover the explicit and implicit metaphysical and anthropological principles and assumptions underlying the views of Hobbes and Spinoza regarding a desirable government and report the differences and similarities between them. The authors intend to demonstrate that Spinoza’s political philosophy is based on ethics and reason. The distinctive feature of his philosophy is its love of human beings and reason. On the other hand, Hobbes’ political philosophy is based on the senses, and its distinctive feature is having a pessimistic view of human beings and presenting a material interpretation of their nature. Accordingly, the principle of preserving the essence in Hobbes’ view is limited to preserving the body, and a superior government means absolute monarchy, the sole purpose of which is protecting the lives of its citizens and establishing security in society. Nevertheless, in Spinoza’s view, protecting the essence is beyond the protection of the body and extends to reason, perhaps even more than the body, because human essence mainly depends on their reason rather than their body. Hence a superior government in Spinoza’s view is of a democratic nature. He also emphasizes the role of government in promoting the human culture and the necessity of educational and ethical policy-making. Manuscript profile

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80 - Bilateral Relationship of Metaphysics of Light with the Dynamic World and Illuminationist Psychology in Dionysius and Suhrawardī
Abdolreza Safari

20.1001.1.20089589.1400.12.3.2.2

The present paper basically hypothesizes that the recent Neoplatonic philosophy is entangled with Christian and Jewish traditions. Accordingly, it would be possible to match Dionysius’ thoughts with those of Illuminationist and mystic philosophers, particularly Suhrawar More

The present paper basically hypothesizes that the recent Neoplatonic philosophy is entangled with Christian and Jewish traditions. Accordingly, it would be possible to match Dionysius’ thoughts with those of Illuminationist and mystic philosophers, particularly Suhrawardī, in the world of Islam. In spite of their different religious and gnostic backgrounds, both Dionysius and Suhrawardī present the same metaphysical system that is based on the mysterious concept and creative role of light. The present study, while relying on the principles of this system, focuses on the similarities between their philosophies in three respects: metaphysics, psychology, and structures that lead to explaining the theorem of the illuminated universe. The author, on the one hand, intends to explain the core of this similarity based on the creative identity of light in order to reveal the emanated identity of the world and the effusion of light. On the other hand, he wishes to demonstrate the basis of their mutual metaphysical and Illuminationist relation to cosmology and fundamental principles of psychology and intuition. Based on the three-fold similarities of these two systems, three conclusions can be derived: 1- origination of the system of the world through emanation in divinity, 2- the reliance of the dynamic structure of the world on Illuminationist action in the whole world, 3- psychology of intuition as the basis of the deiformity of the soul in the world of lights. Nevertheless, the author shows that there is an obvious difference between the two thinkers’ metaphysical systems regarding the way the soul can attain devotion and deiformity. Manuscript profile

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81 - Zoroastrian Wisdom and the Magi Religion in Ancient Greek and Roman Sources
Hojjatullah Askarizadeh

20.1001.1.20089589.1400.12.2.3.1

The impact of Zoroastrian religion and worldview on Greek philosophy, ancient philosophers, and generally on history of philosophy as a fundamental topic regarding the historical development of philosophy has always been of interest to researchers. Ancient thinkers have More

The impact of Zoroastrian religion and worldview on Greek philosophy, ancient philosophers, and generally on history of philosophy as a fundamental topic regarding the historical development of philosophy has always been of interest to researchers. Ancient thinkers have always spoken of Zoroastrian wisdom and philosophy and connected them to the Magi religion. The present paper examines Zoroastrian philosophy and its origin in the Magi religion based on ancient Greek and Roman sources. Based on such sources, the founder of this school of philosophy is a Zoroastrian who is much older than Zoroaster, the author of Avesta, who lived in the time of Goštāsp. Therefore, if we wish to study Zoroastrian wisdom and philosophy from the viewpoint of ancient Greek and Roman thinkers, we must seek its roots in the Magi religion; a religion that is apparently one of the oldest philosophical schools of ancient times and first appeared in Iran. Manuscript profile

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82 - Concept of Ethos in Aristotle’s Theory of Tragedy and its Historical Reflection
Mohammad Hashemi Amir Maziyar

20.1001.1.20089589.1400.12.3.6.6

In Aristotle’s view, an ideal tragic hero must be neither a villain nor a virtuous man but a character who stands between these two extremes based on a conscious process of choice. In order to explain ethos, the study inquires about the roles of conscious ethical choice More

In Aristotle’s view, an ideal tragic hero must be neither a villain nor a virtuous man but a character who stands between these two extremes based on a conscious process of choice. In order to explain ethos, the study inquires about the roles of conscious ethical choice, external virtues, and the similarities between the hero and the addressee in the unity of action and hero in Aristotle’s view. Moreover, it asks about the basis upon which the historical reflection of this unity can be studied. This paper aims to investigate the relationship between Aristotle’s theory of tragedy and philosophy of ethics and its historical reflection relying on the relationship between act and moral character in his Poetics and the related sections in his other treatises. Here, the author demonstrates that action and hero in a tragedy together present some imitations of the essence and ethical nature of the world. The historical reflection of Aristotle’s ethical approach to tragedy can be studied based on the theories related to the principiality of ethics and the relationship between art and ethics. This qualitative study has been conducted following a descriptive-analytic method. Manuscript profile

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83 - A Study of the Principles of the Impossibility of Developing a Preference and Preponderance Without a Preponderant in Epicurean and Stoic Philosophers
Samane Qanbari Varnusfaderani Hassan Fathi Majid Sadremajles Morteza Shajari

20.1001.1.20089589.1401.12.4.2.8

The principles of the impossibility of preponderance without a preponderant and the impossibility of developing a preference are among the most important principles of Islamic philosophy that have been widely discussed. Since the related debates have provoked several co More

The principles of the impossibility of preponderance without a preponderant and the impossibility of developing a preference are among the most important principles of Islamic philosophy that have been widely discussed. Since the related debates have provoked several contradictory ideas, their study aims to clarify many of the problems in Islamic philosophy. The purpose of this paper is to examine the principles of the impossibility of preponderance without a preponderant and developing a preference in Epicurean and Stoic philosophies. These two principles play extremely diverse functions in these two schools of philosophy and are utilized in ethical, epistemological, and physical discussions. Stoics have completely accepted the principle of the impossibility of developing a preference. They also agree with the principle of the impossibility of preponderance without a preponderant but believe that it is based on the principle of the impossibility of making a preference. Stoics maintain that preponderance without a preponderant leads to motion without a cause. Epicureans agree with the principle of the impossibility of developing a preference at a macroscopic scale or in the realm of bodies and events. However, they reject it in the microscopic realm of atoms at least in the case of their diversion. Epicureans accept the principle of the impossibility of preponderance without a preponderant and believe that it is generally possible. However, they acknowledge that it is discreditable in some cases and allowed in some others. They hold that preponderance without a preponderant is a supreme example of Man’s free will. Manuscript profile

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84 - Editor's Note
Hossein Kalbasi Ashtari

20.1001.1.20089589.1400.12.3.7.7

سنجش نسبت ميان فلسفه و فيلسوفان اسلامي با فلسفه و فيلسوفان يوناني و تأثير و تأثر ميان آنها، پيشينه‌يي دراز دارد و احتمالاً تتبّع و گردآوري نگرشها و تحليلها در اين زمينه و طبقه‌بندي نتايج حاصله از آن، خود بتواند موضوعي مستقل ـ و البته پُر ثمر ـ در اين زمينه بشمار آيد. د More

سنجش نسبت ميان فلسفه و فيلسوفان اسلامي با فلسفه و فيلسوفان يوناني و تأثير و تأثر ميان آنها، پيشينه‌يي دراز دارد و احتمالاً تتبّع و گردآوري نگرشها و تحليلها در اين زمينه و طبقه‌بندي نتايج حاصله از آن، خود بتواند موضوعي مستقل ـ و البته پُر ثمر ـ در اين زمينه بشمار آيد. در قرون اخير و بويژه در خلال اغلب نوشته‌هاي مستشرقان، نگاه و تعبير اخذ و اقتباس حكماي اسلامي از سنت يوناني و يوناني‌مآبي به گرته‌برداري و تقليد و استمرار همه‌جانبه بَدَل شده و در لابلاي انبوهي از گزارشهاي مربوط به دورة ترجمه و فهرستهاي مربوط به شرح و تفسيرهاي صورت گرفته بر آثار افلاطون و ارسطو و نوافلاطونيان، ابتكارات و نوآوريهاي حكيمان مسلمان در مداخل و مسائل فلسفي و مابعدطبيعي كمرنگ و ناچيز انگاشته و حتي ناديده گرفته شده است. علاوه بر اين، استفاده از واژگان مبهم و نادرستي چون «فلسفة عربي» و حتي قرار دادن آن در مقابل اصطلاحات دقيق و عميقي همچون «فلسفة ايراني»، «حكمت خسرواني» و «حكمت مشرقي»، اگر نگوييم ناشي از مقاصد سياسي و دلبستگيهاي ملي‌گرايانه است، دست‌كم ناشي از ناآگاهي نسبت به سير و مسير تطّور فلسفة اسلامي و روح حاكم بر اين سنت عقلي است. اهل نظر و محققان حوزة فلسفة اسلامي بخوبي ميدانند كه نه‌تنها حكمت متعاليه صدرايي و مشارب فلسفي پس از آن، بلكه حتي نظامهاي فلسفي فارابي و ابن‌سينا، به رغم مشابهتهايي در قلمرو معرفت‌شناسي و كيهان‌شناسي و طبيعيات، در قلمروهايي چون هستي‌شناسي، علم‌النفس و معاد، از اساس با فلسفه‌هاي ارسطو و مشائيان متفاوت است. براي نمونه، چگونه ميتوان دغدغة بنيادين فارابي در هماهنگي و تطابق ميان عقل و شرع را به زمينه‌هاي فلسفي و تأملات نظري سنت يوناني و حتي نوافلاطوني پيوند زد؟ يا چگونه ميتوان تقرير استوار و خلاقانة ابن‌سينا درباره علّيت و بويژه عليت فاعلي را مربوط و متأثر از فلسفة ارسطو و اتباع او دانست؟ در مورد اخير، مراجعه به نمط چهارم اشارات و تنبيهات شيخ‌الرئيس براي درك و آگاهي از تمايز و فاصلة وي از اسلاف يونانيش كفايت ميكند. «عليت» بعنوان يكي از اركان مباحث مابعدالطبيعه از يكسو و نقص و كاستي تقرير ارسطوئيان از اين مبحث با تأكيد و تمركز آنان بر علّيت‌ غايي از سوي ديگر، ميزان فاصلة صاحب اشارات را از تمامي صُور مشارب فلسفي قبل از خودش روشن ميسازد. بيترديد، اين مبحث مسبوق به نوعي وجودشناسي مستقل از يونانيان و مشخّصاً بر تمايز ميان «وجود و ماهيت» و «امكان و وجوب» استوار است كه زمينه‌يي در اسلاف يوناني ندارد. نمونه‌هايي از اين دست فراوان است، آنچه از اين جُستار انتظار ميرود، گردآوري و برآورد ابداعات حكماي مسلمان در جميع مداخل و ابواب طبيعيات، مابعدالطبيعه و حكمت عملي است كه هم حيث تاريخي آن مورد نياز است و هم حيث تحليلي و پديدارشناسانة آن. از حيث تاريخي، ملاحظاتي بميان مي‌آيد كه بر لزوم اِعمال دقّت و تأمل افزونتر مي‌افزايد؛ مهمترين اين ملاحظات به نگرش و نگارش جديدي از سير تحول و تطّور تاريخي انديشه‌ها و مشارب فلسفي در عالم اسلام بازميگردد. پيش از اين به نقيصة مشترك بسياري از آثار مربوط به تاريخ فلسفة اسلامي اشاره كرديم و آن عبارتست از التزام و تقيد نويسندگان به پيش‌فرضها و انگاره‌هاي شرق‌شناسي در اين زمينه. بدين‌ترتيب، در گام اول، سنجش و نقد اين پيش‌فرضها براي تدوين هرگونه مجموعه‌يي در باب تاريخ فلسفه و عرفان اسلامي ضرورت دارد و بدون بازنگري در اين انگاره‌ها، نتيجة‌ كار حداكثر تقريري نو از نوشته‌هاي قبلي خواهد شد. Manuscript profile

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85 - A Critical Study of Empiricists’ Theories of Natural Law in Modern Period
Mohammad Hosein Talebi

20.1001.1.20089589.1400.12.3.8.8

The doctrine of “natural law” is one of the oldest and most famous and efficient subjects of practical wisdom in Western philosophy. This theorem is employed in various fields of human sciences such as philosophy, anthropology, ethics, law, political science, education, More

The doctrine of “natural law” is one of the oldest and most famous and efficient subjects of practical wisdom in Western philosophy. This theorem is employed in various fields of human sciences such as philosophy, anthropology, ethics, law, political science, education, and sociology. Unlike Muslim philosophers, Western thinkers have provided several theories about this doctrine. According to their most famous interpretation, natural law is a system of law based on the orders of practical wisdom regarding the behaviors of human beings in order to attain happiness. The purpose of this study is to investigate modern empiricists’ philosophy concerning the natural law and explain the defects of their views following a rational and critical approach and based on philosophical arguments. The interpretation of the thinkers of the modern period (17th and 18th centuries), such as Thomas Hobbes and John Lock, of the rational doctrine of the natural law is an empiricist one. According to this interpretation, since the spirit of positivism dominated the thoughts of empiricists, the immateriality of the human soul was generally unacceptable to them. They only observed the human nature in order to explain the natural law and did not go beyond the satisfaction of human natural and material desires. They neglected the social interests of human being while the natural law always reinforces the orders of practical intellect for the development and progress of the humankind in all material and spiritual, personal and communal, and social affairs. The outcome of their approach to the natural law only directs people towards moral and material joys and delights and closes their eyes to everything that pertains to their everlasting and spiritual life in the hereafter. Therefore, the right to life and freedom, which is one of the concomitants of the natural law in the empiricism of modern Western civilization, mainly targets only material life and freedom. This approach results in ignoring a large part of the world of reality, that is, metaphysical affairs. This philosophy paved the context for the vast dominance of positivism over all aspects of human life in the 19th century and granted an empirical nature to all sciences. As a result, rational discussions, particularly those in relation to the natural law remained dormant for more than a whole century. Manuscript profile

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86 - Etymology of Fourth Dimension in the View of Muslim Mutikallimūn (Abū Isḥāq Naẓẓām, Ibn al-Rāwandī, Abū Sahl ‘Abbād, and Muḥaqiq Ṭūsī)
Mahdi Assadi

20.1001.1.20089589.1401.12.4.3.9

The fourth dimension is one of the problems that have left the borderlines of philosophy behind and are now among the main concerns of physicists. However, the accurate background and history of this view are still clouded. The roots of the fourth dimension can be trace More

The fourth dimension is one of the problems that have left the borderlines of philosophy behind and are now among the main concerns of physicists. However, the accurate background and history of this view are still clouded. The roots of the fourth dimension can be traced back to the works and ideas of some thinkers of the Middle Ages, such as Anselm, in Western philosophy, although there is no explicit reference in this regard in their works. The roots of the fourth dimension have also been found in the works of Mullā Ṣadrā in Iranian philosophical society. This paper aims to demonstrate that there are some clearly explicit statements about the fourth dimension in the works of Khwājah Naṣīr al-Dīn Ṭūsī in the Islamic world before Mullā Ṣadrā. The author has found no direct statement in this respect in first-hand sources; however, some ideas have been attributed in second-hand sources to some of the mutikallimūn of the Islamic world, including Naẓẓām, Ibn Rāwandī, and ‘Abbād, that focus on four-dimensionalism. Following a historical approach, this paper has compiled the views of these thinkers and analyzed them based on a rational approach. Manuscript profile

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87 - Development of the Concept of Free Will in the View of Modern Philosophers
Roohollah Karimi

20.1001.1.20089589.1401.13.1.6.9

The concept of free will is one of the fundamental concepts in Western metaphysical tradition. Although there are some important signs regarding the origination of this concept in Greek classical philosophy and Middle Age philosophy, it was just at the beginning of the More

The concept of free will is one of the fundamental concepts in Western metaphysical tradition. Although there are some important signs regarding the origination of this concept in Greek classical philosophy and Middle Age philosophy, it was just at the beginning of the modern period that the role of free will in the interpretation of the world was more highlighted in the thoughts of each philosopher more than those of the previous one. It seems as if the role of rational knowledge has become gradually less important in this process while the role of free will has become more significant. Inspired by Heidegger, the author has tried to strengthen his standpoint by yielding more proofs than he has offered in order to examine the development of the concept of free will. In doing so, he starts with Descartes and, by investigating the views of Espinoza, Leibniz, Rousseau, Kant, Fichte, Schelling, Hegel, Schopenhauer, and Nietzsche, aims to analyze the quality of the development of this concept, particularly the relationship between the free will and knowledge in the modern period. The purpose is to show that the significance of free will for Schopenhauer and Nietzsche is not accidental, and the preliminary contexts of such a development had been previously and gradually paved by modern philosophers. The findings of this study indicate that, unlike the previous comments and interpretations, Nietzsche’s “will to power” is not a complement to a Schopenhaurian project but, rather, a complement to German idealism. Manuscript profile

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88 - An Evaluation of Fakhr al-Dīn Rāzī’s Criticisms of Ibn Sīnā’s Arguments on the Falsity of Vacuum
Mahmud Seidy

20.1001.1.20089589.1401.12.4.4.0

One of the problems that has always been discussed during the history of Islamic philosophy is the possibility or impossibility of vacuum. The problem is whether one can imagine a place or space in which there is no body. Aristotle was one of the philosophers that criti More

One of the problems that has always been discussed during the history of Islamic philosophy is the possibility or impossibility of vacuum. The problem is whether one can imagine a place or space in which there is no body. Aristotle was one of the philosophers that criticized the theory of vacuum and presented some arguments in this regard. Following Aristotle, Ibn Sīnā discussed this problem and provided some arguments in support of his views. These arguments have been adduced on the equality or sameness of the dimensions of vacuum, mobility of bodies in vacuum, forcible motion in open air, and non-temporality of physical motion in vacuum. Fakhr al-Dīn Rāzī has referred to several defects of these arguments, which are critically investigated in this paper. Manuscript profile

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89 - Resolving Zeno’s Paradoxes Based on the Theory of the “Linear Analytic Summation” and Evaluation of Evolution of Responsesa
Reza Shakeri Ali Abedi Shahroodi

20.1001.1.20089589.1401.12.4.5.1

Zeno challenged the problem of motion following his master Parmenides and presented his criticisms of the theory of motion based on four arguments that in fact introduced the paradoxes of this theory. These paradoxes, which contradict an evident problem (motion), provok More

Zeno challenged the problem of motion following his master Parmenides and presented his criticisms of the theory of motion based on four arguments that in fact introduced the paradoxes of this theory. These paradoxes, which contradict an evident problem (motion), provoked some reactions. This paper initially refers to two of Zeno’s paradoxes and then presents the responses provided by some thinkers of different periods. In his response to Zeno’s paradoxes, Aristotle separated the actual and potential runs of motion and, following a mathematical approach, resorted to the concept of infinitely small sizes. Kant has also referred to this problem in his antinomies. Secondly, the authors explain the theory of linear analytic summation, which consists of two elements: 1) The distance between two points of transfer can be divided infinitely; however, the absolute value of the subsequent distance is always smaller than the absolute value of the previous distance; 2) since the infinitude of the division is of an analytic rather than a synthetic nature, the summation limit of these distances will be equal to the initial distance. Based on this theory, as motion is not free of direction and continuous limits, an integral limit of distance is traversed at each moment, and the analytic, successive, and infinite limits of distance are determined. The final section of this paper is intended to evaluate the responses given to the paradoxes. Manuscript profile

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90 - Aeons in Christian Gnosticism (Based of Saint Irenaeus’ Reports)
Hojjatullah Askarizadeh

20.1001.1.20089589.1401.13.1.5.8

Aeons are among fundamental concepts in Christian gnosticism. On the one hand, they are rooted in the myths of ancient Greek gods and, on the other hand, they originate in Platonic philosophy and school and are integrated with the elements of Christianity and the Holy B More

Aeons are among fundamental concepts in Christian gnosticism. On the one hand, they are rooted in the myths of ancient Greek gods and, on the other hand, they originate in Platonic philosophy and school and are integrated with the elements of Christianity and the Holy Book. Therefore, a conceptual and technical explanation of Aeons is important and plays a significant role in understanding the origins of early philosophical schools and ideas. Gnosticism and its founders, such as Valentinus, precede Plotinus, the founder of Neo-Platonism; hence, a clarification of gnostic concepts and, particularly, an analysis of the emanation of existents are of great importance in this school. Moreover, the etymology of dualism in gnosticism speaks of its original and fundamental relationship with Zoroastrian wisdom and the magi’s religion in ancient Iran. Therefore, a study of this point can reveal the integration of philosophical elements in ancient Iran and ancient Greece and the New and Old Testaments. Accordingly, this paper is intended to explain the concept of Aeons and the reasons of their emergence in Christian gnosticism based on Saint Erenaus’ reports and through investigating their roots in the technical philosophical terms in ancient Greece and the New and Old Testaments. Manuscript profile

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91 - The Relationships Among Eros, Techne, and Philosophy in Plato’s Symposium and Phaedrus (With a Critical Emphasis on the Views of Vlastos and Nussbaum)
Javid Kazemi Seyyed Mohammad Hakak Ali Naqi Baqershahi Mohammad Raayat Jahromi

20.1001.1.20089589.1401.13.1.3.6

Eros, the Greek god of love, in addition to its different meanings in the pre-Socratic mythological and philosophical history, has been used in Plato’s philosophy in different senses. This diversity has misled its interpreters in translating it into erroneous meanings s More

Eros, the Greek god of love, in addition to its different meanings in the pre-Socratic mythological and philosophical history, has been used in Plato’s philosophy in different senses. This diversity has misled its interpreters in translating it into erroneous meanings such as love. The present paper examines the meaning of eros in Plato’s two Dialogs of Symposium and Phaedrus and then explores its relationship with philosophy and techne. In the dialog of Symposium, after being used in some different meanings, Eros is used in the sense of the longing and desire for observing absolute beauty, which is the same philosophy. This is because in Plato’s philosophy, the difference between the Idea of the good (philosophy is a motive for viewing it) and the Idea of beauty is mentally-posited. In other words, the Ideas of the good and absolute beauty are the same truth that is viewed from two points of view. Now that dialectics – an activity in which multiple details are recognized from the one and the one from multiple details – is introduced in the dialog of Phaedrus as an instrument of techne, it can be concluded that the Platonic lover, and the philosopher cannot perceive the Idea of beauty (or the good) unless through techne. The major problems in this paper are discussed based on the views of two interpreters of Plato, Gregory Velastos and Martha Nussbaum. Manuscript profile

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92 - The Relationship Between Sophia and Ṣūfī in Ancient Texts and Sources Based on Bīrūnī’s Narrative
Hojjatullah Askarizadeh

20.1001.1.20089589.1401.13.3.1.8

This paper concerns the narrative by Abū Rayḥān al-Bīrūnī, the prominent scientist of the world of Islam, of the unity between Sophia and Ṣūfī as an introduction to the discussion of the truth of wisdom and philosophy in ancient texts. Most modern researchers do not see More

This paper concerns the narrative by Abū Rayḥān al-Bīrūnī, the prominent scientist of the world of Islam, of the unity between Sophia and Ṣūfī as an introduction to the discussion of the truth of wisdom and philosophy in ancient texts. Most modern researchers do not see any relationship between Ṣūfī and the Greek Sophia and believe that Ṣūfī is lexically related to such words as wool and woolen garments. In fact, they deny the relationship of Greek philosophy and Sophia with Sufism and Ṣūfī. Here, the author has tried to explore the origin of philosophy and wisdom of ancient Greece based on ancient sources in order to view Greek Sophia from another perspective. This study mainly begins with the relationship between Greek Sophia and Ṣūfī based on al-Bīrūnī’s narrative; however, its main purpose is to speak of the truth of philosophy and wisdom and their origin based on ancient texts. Such sources establish a specific connection between the distinguished philosopher of various ethnic groups in Iran, Greece, and India, as well as between gnostics and Ṣūfīs. Abū Rayḥān al-Bīrūnī’s words concerning the relationship between Sophia and Ṣūfī provide a number of solid proofs in this regard in ancient texts and sources. The root of the unity of Greek Sophia and Ṣūfī in the Islamic world goes beyond the history of post-Islam Sufism. It should be, in fact, sought in the historical development of wisdom originating in the philosophical thoughts of ancient Greece, Iran, and India, the views and beliefs of Harranian, the Magi, Zoroastrians, and Sabians, and their relationship with the divine prophets. Manuscript profile

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93 - Death in the View of Abul-ḥassan ‘Āmirī (with a Focus on its Historical Place)
Einullah Khademi

20.1001.1.20089589.1402.13.4.2.5

Death as one of the most definite and certain events in human life has always attracted the attention of numerous thinkers. Modern philosophers have shown special attention to it particularly in their discussion of the meaning of life. Abul-ḥassan al-‘Āmirī is one of th More

Death as one of the most definite and certain events in human life has always attracted the attention of numerous thinkers. Modern philosophers have shown special attention to it particularly in their discussion of the meaning of life. Abul-ḥassan al-‘Āmirī is one of the thinkers in the Islamic tradition whose view of death is of great historical significance. ‘Āmirī mainly pays attention to death while focusing on sensory soul and defines death as the annihilation and separation of sensory soul from the body. He considers sensory soul as the link between the soul (as an immaterial thing) and body (as a material thing) that is annihilated along with the body at the time of death. However, the rational soul is not destroyed. It can be said that ‘Āmirī had a medical approach to the problem of death and was influenced by religious texts at the same time. From the philosophical and religious aspect, ‘Āmirī rejected the M‘utazilites’ view of death and used the term nuz’ (dying) in order to provide a more profound concept and understanding of death. He also presents some arguments for the immortality of the soul and, at the same time, benefits from the concept of “vision” and its different types for a better perception of death. He believes that fear of death is one of the obstacles to a deep understanding of death and maintains that the attention to the necessary joys of life and luminous world and a change of view of death are critical for a more accurate encounter with this issue. One of the weak points of ‘Āmirī’s discussion of death could be lack of a focus on different types of death, particularly voluntary death. Manuscript profile

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94 - The Relationship Between Finitude and Pure Theory in Heidegger’s Reading of Aristotle
Mehrdad Ahmadi Mohamadreza Asadi

20.1001.1.20089589.1401.13.3.3.0

In Aristotle’s view, theoretical activity is an emotion-free and worldless activity that leaves all negative and resisting affairs behind. As a result, because of the falsity of finitude, error has no way into theoretical activity. Accordingly, theory enjoys a specific More

In Aristotle’s view, theoretical activity is an emotion-free and worldless activity that leaves all negative and resisting affairs behind. As a result, because of the falsity of finitude, error has no way into theoretical activity. Accordingly, theory enjoys a specific kind of autonomy, in other words, an individual involved in pure theorizing perceives that in the course of theoretical activity he is immune to not only any emotion but also to any error in his purely theoretical activities. However, the essential point here is that in Heidegger’s view, Aristotle could never provide such a status for Man at the level of theory without undergoing a change in his understanding of existence and moving to the realm of poiesis. According to Heidegger, the horizon of ousiology of existence is the result of a transformation in the Greeks’ understanding of existence. As a result, the structural finitude of the emergence of existence and the finite position of the theoretician among existents enable him the develop an absolute knowledge of at least one existent, that is, theos or existing God. Therefore, the present paper aims to demonstrate how, based on Aristotle’s ousiology, knowledge in the sense of theorizing has turned into a deserving desire for all human beings and has emerged as a possibility for transcending the essential finitude of theory. Manuscript profile

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95 - Effects of the Views of Ibn Sīnā and Fakhr al-Dīn Rāzī on Mullā Ṣadrā’s Theory of the Immateriality of the Soul
Davood Mohamadiany

20.1001.1.20089589.1401.13.3.4.1

The immateriality of the soul has always been one of the important psychological discussions in Islamic philosophy and given rise to various related theories. Mullā Ṣadrā has discussed the problem more than any other philosopher and claims to have some innovative views More

The immateriality of the soul has always been one of the important psychological discussions in Islamic philosophy and given rise to various related theories. Mullā Ṣadrā has discussed the problem more than any other philosopher and claims to have some innovative views regarding the imaginal immateriality of the soul. Here, the author intends to criticize Mullā Ṣadrā’s view based on a study of the views of Ibn Sīnā and Fakhr al-Dīn Rāzī. Mullā Ṣadrā claims that he is the first to have provided a theory on the immateriality of the soul; however, a study of the works of Ibn Sīnā and Fakhr al-Dīn Rāzī reveals that this theory has indeed a longer history than what Mullā Ṣadrā attests. Ibn Sīnā’s words on the demonstration of the immateriality of the soul are quite clear; nevertheless, they raise some doubt concerning the imaginal immateriality of the soul. Ibn Sīnā and Mullā Ṣadrā adduce two different reasons to prove this immateriality. However, Mullā Ṣadrā has also demonstrated imaginal and super rational immateriality of the soul and rejected some of Ibn Sīnā’s reasons about the immateriality of the soul. The present paper criticizes Mullā Ṣadrā’s view and approach in this regard. Manuscript profile

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96 - Editor's Note
Hossein Kalbasi Ashtari

20.1001.1.20089589.1401.13.1.7.0

از زمره مقاطع حساسّ و درخشان تاريخي كه از قضا بطور خاص با تاريخ فلسفه پيوند مستقيم دارد، قرن پنجم پيش از ميلاد با محوريّت و ميدانداري دو تمدّن اصلي ايران و يونان است. البته آگاهي ما از اين دوره شوربختانه يكسويه است و عمدتاً متكّي بر نوشته‌ها، منابع و گزارشهاي مورخان يون More

از زمره مقاطع حساسّ و درخشان تاريخي كه از قضا بطور خاص با تاريخ فلسفه پيوند مستقيم دارد، قرن پنجم پيش از ميلاد با محوريّت و ميدانداري دو تمدّن اصلي ايران و يونان است. البته آگاهي ما از اين دوره شوربختانه يكسويه است و عمدتاً متكّي بر نوشته‌ها، منابع و گزارشهاي مورخان يوناني است و از اين سو، يعني جهان ايراني و بطور خاص سرزمين پارس، هيچگونه مدركي در اختيار ما نيست و اگر هست، براي عرصه تاريخ‌نگاري و مستندسازي كارآيي چنداني ندارد. قرن پنجم را عصر طلايي و شكوفايي فرهنگ و تمدن يوناني ناميده‌اند و البته كه در اين تعبير و توصيف حقيقتي نهفته است: در آن دوره، بجز شماري از فيلسوفان، مجموعه‌يي از هنرمندان، شاعران، دانشمندان، نويسندگان و سياستمداران مهم و تأثيرگذار ظهور كردند كه آثار قلمي و معنوي آنان امروز نيز با گذشت بيش از 25 قرن، همچنان در مركز توجّه هر پژوهش علمي و تاريخي و فرهنگي است. هرچند از فيلسوفان آن دوره ـ موسوم به پيشاسقراطيان ـ بلحاظ آثار مكتوب، بغير از پاره نوشته‌ها، كتاب و دفتر و رساله منظّم و كاملي در اختيار نداريم، اما همين مقدار اندك و پراكنده هم براي تاريخ فلسفه و خود فلسفه، منبعي سرشار از تفكّر و تأمّلات عميق نظري است و دور نيست كه هر يك از آنان بعنوان آموزگار فلسفه براي ادوار بعدي خوانده شوند. دربارة نقش و سهم ساير دانشمندان و هنرمندان بسيار گفته‌اند و نوشته‌اند و امروزه در نوشته‌هاي مختصر و مفصّل نويسندگان غربي، بعنوان نياي پرافتخار فرهنگ، از آنان همچون پشتوانه درازدامن تاريخي ياد ميشود. نقد و ارزيابي آثار علمي و فرهنگي آن دوره با عنوان تمدن يوناني از جهات مختلفي قابل تأمل است كه به برخي از آن جهات در قالب ملاحظه مقدماتي اشاره ميشود: 1. در عنوان «سرزمين يونان» و «فرهنگ يوناني» قدري مسامحه و اغماض وجود دارد. چنانكه ميدانيم، سرزميني كه امروزه با نام كشور يونان شناخته ميشود، در قديم مشتمل بر مجموعه‌يي از جزاير و مناطق مستقل و نيمه‌مستقلاً بوده است كه عمدتاً در سواحل مديترانه و تركيه امروزي ـ آسياي صغير ـ بصورت كولونيها و مستعمره‌نشينها پراكنده شده و به‌اعتبار مهاجرت ساكنان يونان مركزي ـ آتيكا ـ به مناطق يوناني‌نشين آن دوره، شهرت يافتند. شايد عامل زباني نيز بيتأثير نبوده است، بطوريكه زبانهاي محلي جزاير و مناطق پراكنده آن عصر، پس از مدتي به زبان ـ و البته فرهنگ ـ عمومي يونان قديم خو گرفتند. گذشته از اين، نزاع و مناقشات سياسي و نظامي ميان آن مناطق، همواره در طول قرن پنجم بر قرار بوده است كه مشهورترين نمونه آن، نزاع و رقابت مستمر ميان آتن و اسپارت، بعنوان سمبل تقابل دو فرهنگ و نظام سياسي عصر باستان تلقي شده است. بدين ترتيب، چيزي بنام «دولت واحد» و حتي «وحدت سياسي» تحت عنوان «امپراتوري يونان»، عاري از واقعيت است و اين سرزمينهاي پراكنده، رقيب و حتي دشمن يكديگر، تنها در نقاطي خاص براي حفظ منافع و در مقابل دشمن مشترك به يكديگر نزديك ميشده‌اند و لذا اطلاق مفهومي واحد و يكدست بر اين قطعات متكثّر و عمدتاً ناسازگار، خالي از مسامحه نيست. 2. در مورد فيلسوفان و مكاتب و نحله‌هاي فلسفي نيز همين ملاحظه جاري است. بغير از كساني چون سقراط و افلاطون، اغلب يا تمامي چهره‌هاي شاخص فلسفي پيش و پس از سقراط، عمدتاً به خارج از قلمرو يونان مركزي تعلق داشتند و در آتن، بعنوان مهاجر و احياناً شهروند درجه دوم محسوب ميشدند. مشهود است كه ارسطو بعنوان بيگانه و مهاجر، براي تأسيس مدرسه خود به خارج از شهر آتن كوچ كرد و در طول فعاليت علمي خود، همواره تحت نظر حاكميت و رقباي خود قرار داشت. اين موضوع در مورد نويسندگان و دانشمندان و هنرمندان نيز صادق است و كمتر چهره‌يي در اين عرصه‌ها را ميشناسيم كه از سرزمين اصلي و مركزي يونان آن عصر، بر آمده باشد. نظير اين موقعيت در دنياي قديم را ميتوان شهر اسكندريه در شمال آفريقا نام بُرد. پس از افول و زوال قدرت سياسي و فرهنگي آتن، جمعيت زيادي از دانشمندان راه اسكندريه را در پيش گرفتند و در آنجا مدارس و حلقه‌هاي علمي، يكي پس از ديگري شكل گرفتند. چنانكه روشن است اطلاق عنواني مانند «تمدن اسكندريه» نيز خالي از اشكال نيست. بهر روي، فارغ از ملّيت و تعّلق افراد به آب و خاك و سرزمين مادري، سخن ما در تحليل و سنجش اصطلاح «تمدن يوناني» با تمركز بر قابلّيت و استعدادهاي ذاتي و جبلّي آنست كه در قياس با تمدنهاي ديگري، نظير هند، چين، مصر و ايران، نياز به بازخواني دارد. براي نمونه، موقعيت و شرايط امپراتوري پارس در همان عصر و برخورداري آن از وحدت سياسي و فرهنگي، دست‌كم در بازه زماني دويست سال حاكميت هخامنشيان، براي چنين مقصدي ميتواند مَدد رساند. ملاحظات ديگر در اين زمينه را به يادداشت بعدي واميگذاريم. Manuscript profile

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97 - A Study of the Historical Development of the Notion of Platonic-Aristotelean Agape and Love in Fārābī and Ṭūsī (In the Realm of Human Relationships)
Fereshteh Abolhassani Niaraki

20.1001.1.20089589.1402.13.4.4.7

The present study provides a description and analysis of the historical development of the notion of Aristotelean-Platonic agape (love) in the philosophical thoughts of Fārābī and Khwājah Nasīr al-Dīn Ṭūsī. Following a historical method, the author deals with the reason More

The present study provides a description and analysis of the historical development of the notion of Aristotelean-Platonic agape (love) in the philosophical thoughts of Fārābī and Khwājah Nasīr al-Dīn Ṭūsī. Following a historical method, the author deals with the reasons behind this development in addition to describing it. The discussion of friendship (agape) in Aristotle’s philosophy is propounded in his Nichomachean Ethics, where some traces of Platonic notion are also observable. This discussion was transformed in Islamic Philosophy in certain respects, including the variety of the beloved (and the most beloved), individualistic or socialist aspect, and selfishness or selflessness aspect. Regarding the variety of the beloved, the discussion has moved from virtue-based friendship (agape) to the love of the Wise (God). As to its range, one can observe a change of dialog form social-political friendship to agape as an internal characteristic with individual and social effects. Moreover, it has moved beyond selfishness and selflessness and, in conformity with the principle of congruence, reached the love from Him (Godly). The influential views of such thinkers as Plotinus; the role of religion, culture, and gnosis, and the ideas of Ibn Sīnā, Ibn Miskawayh, and Suhrawardī are of great importance in explaining this development. The particular philosophical and Kalāmī principles of Fārābī and Ṭūsī as well as some of their ethical views are the most important factors in the interpretation of the underlying reasons of the mentioned development. Manuscript profile

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98 - A Semantic Study of Common Zandaqa in Quraysh in Pre-Islamic Era
mihammadhadi tavakoli

20.1001.1.20089589.1401.13.3.6.3

Some pre-Islamic sources refer to Zandaqa as one of the common religions in Quraysh tribe. This point has often been recorded in the works written during the second century (AH), during which the word Zandaqa was used in different meanings. Hence, it is an important que More

Some pre-Islamic sources refer to Zandaqa as one of the common religions in Quraysh tribe. This point has often been recorded in the works written during the second century (AH), during which the word Zandaqa was used in different meanings. Hence, it is an important question for historians of pre-Islamic period in which sense this word was commonly used in Quraysh. According to Ibn Kalbī in Mathālib al-‘Arab, as the oldest report available in this regard, there are some points about the Quraysh’s Zandaqa that can contribute to an understanding of its meaning. First, based on this report, the rise of Zandaqa in Quraysh was due to Quraysh’s merchants encounter with the people of al-Ḥirah, where the Christians were introduced as teachers of Zandaqa. Second, the names of the Zandaqa of Quraysh are recorded in this report. Given these two points, one can conclude that the Zandaqa in Quraysh does not indicate the Quraysh’s advocacy of gnostic religions, such as Manichaeism, nor their belief in Mazdakism, nor their apostasy and interest in the Magi’s duality. Other pieces of evidence, rather, indicate that this word was used to denote their lack of belief in the Origin or the hereafter. Manuscript profile

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99 - A Critical Study of Western Rationalists’ Theories of Natural Law in the Modern Period (Montesquieu, Rousseau, and Kant)
Mohammad Hossein Talebi

20.1001.1.20089589.1401.13.2.1.6

Among the various interpretations of natural law, the most favorite of them states that it refers to the orders of practical intellect regarding Man’s voluntary behaviors in all places and at all times that lead to permanent happiness if obeyed by human beings. The theo More

Among the various interpretations of natural law, the most favorite of them states that it refers to the orders of practical intellect regarding Man’s voluntary behaviors in all places and at all times that lead to permanent happiness if obeyed by human beings. The theory of natural law in the modern period has received two opposing empirical and rationalist interpretations. By reason, modern rationalism means calculating reason, which is viewed as a tool for attaining material and immaterial (moral) wishes. Montesquieu, Rousseau, and Kant were three rationalist philosophers of the Age of Enlightenment who discussed and theorized about natural law. In this paper, after a brief account of their theories on natural law, the author evaluates them one by one. In the first section, the author argues that Montesquieu, by posing a self-made myth, states that following natural desire leads Man to happiness. This act of following in his view implies natural law. The most important criticism of Montesquieu’s theory is that he has confused the natural law with the law of nature. In the second section, the author argues that, unlike Montesquieu, Rousseau believes that natural law is not based on the reason but, rather, on human instincts and feelings. The basic problem of this theory is his material approach to human nature, which lowers Man to the level of animals. Finally, the third section presents a critical investigation of Kant’s natural law. In his view, natural law is different from the law of nature. Kant believes that natural law enjoys two characteristics: universality and intrinsicness. However, he has not referred to any of the applications of natural law and has failed in providing a complete explanation of this theory. This failure is rooted in the epistemological system of Kant’s philosophy, based on which the practical wisdom and its orders (or the same natural law) must be deemed unfounded and unreliable. Kant maintains that the issues related to immaterial and even material substances are polemic rather than demonstrative in nature. Similar to other critical studies, the present study was conducted following a mixed narrative-intellectual method. Accordingly, the views of the three rationalist philosophers of the modern period are initially explained and then examined and evaluated based on rational arguments and reasoning. Manuscript profile

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100 - Husserl’s Philosophical-Historical Narration of the Origin of Psychologism and the Necessity of Transcendental Turn
Ali Fathi

20.1001.1.20089589.1401.13.2.2.7

In the Crisis of European Sciences and Transcendental Phenomenology, Husserl has tried to disclose the origin of psychologism in the history of modern philosophy. Phenomenological psychology not only provides a basis for empirical psychology but can also function as an More

In the Crisis of European Sciences and Transcendental Phenomenology, Husserl has tried to disclose the origin of psychologism in the history of modern philosophy. Phenomenological psychology not only provides a basis for empirical psychology but can also function as an introduction to transcendental phenomenology. In his philosophical narration of the historical development of the concept of psychologism, Husserl refers to John Locke and states that Barkley and Hume advocated Locke’s views. Locke’s psychological studies come at the service of transcendental concept, which had been formulated by Descartes in his Meditations on First Philosophy for the first time. In his view, metaphysics can show that the whole reality of the world and everything that exists is nothing more than our cognitive acts. It is at this point that it is necessary to pay attention to transcendental affairs. Descartes’ methodological skepticism was the first method used for posing the transcendental subject, and his description of cogito ergo (I think) provided the first conceptual formulation for it. John Locke replaced the pure transcendental mind of Descartes with the human mind. Nevertheless, he continued his study of the human mind through intrinsic experience because of an unconscious transcendental-philosophical concern. However, knowingly or unknowingly, he fell in the trap of psychologism. Following a historical and, in a way, completely philosophical approach, Husserl showed how the rays of attention to transcendental affairs emerged for the first time in Cartesian philosophy and, then, in the conflict between rationalism and empiricism. He also demonstrated how, after the growth of this attention in Kantian transcendental philosophy, it came to fruition in Husserl’s phenomenological philosophy. Manuscript profile

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101 - A Comparative Study of the Problem of Evil in Plotinus and Ibn Sīnā (With a Focus on its Historical Aspect)
Mahmud Seidy

20.1001.1.20089589.1402.13.4.5.8

The present paper deals with a comparative study of the views of Plotinus and Ibn Sīnā regarding evil. In spite of the existing differences concerning this problem in their philosophies, there are also some similarities, and Ibn Sīnā is influenced by Plotinus with respe More

The present paper deals with a comparative study of the views of Plotinus and Ibn Sīnā regarding evil. In spite of the existing differences concerning this problem in their philosophies, there are also some similarities, and Ibn Sīnā is influenced by Plotinus with respect to his response to the problem of evil. Among the similarities between them in this area, one can refer to the self-evident nature of the existence of evil, exclusivity of the realization of evil to the world of matter and the impossibility of its realization in the immaterial world, and the non-existence nature of evil and good nature of all beings based on a general view of the world. However, unlike Plotinus, Ibn Sīnā does not consider matter as being essentially evil and non-existential. Rather, he maintains that matter is a correlative, analogical, and existential thing. Plotinus views the relationship between good and evil of the type of opposition, while Ibn Sīnā sees it as a non-existential and habitual one. Moreover, according to Plotinus, matter or the same essentially evil thing is created from the particular spirit. Nevertheless, Ibn Sīnā argues that the essential possibility of the Active intellect causes the emanation of matter, and its otherness necessity aspect results in the emanation of form, on which evil sometimes occurs to. Manuscript profile

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102 - World Creating Vortex: A Recreation of the Concept of δίνղ in Empedocles’ Cosmogony
Ebrahim Ranjbar Mehdi Monfared

20.1001.1.20089589.1402.13.4.6.9

Empedocles’ philosophy is conceived as the campaign of a number of hostile forces that are continually in conflict with each other. The traditional view of, for example, ancient dualists is that sometimes strife and sometimes love gain victory in the Empedoclean world. More

Empedocles’ philosophy is conceived as the campaign of a number of hostile forces that are continually in conflict with each other. The traditional view of, for example, ancient dualists is that sometimes strife and sometimes love gain victory in the Empedoclean world. Orthodox thinkers and revisionists did their best to contradict each other. one group believed that these two forces are repulsive, and the other believed that they are attractive. In this paper, it has been tried to reconstruct the internal logic of Empedocles’ poetry in a new way by dealing with the concept of vortex (δίνղ), which both methods of interpretation have ignored. In line with this purpose, in addition to examining the literary logic of the poetry itself, the authors have dealt with the background and consequences of his thoughts before and after him while taking the Aristotelean background of his philosophy into account. Therefore, they initially focus on the point that, in order to understand the nature of motion in Empedocles’ view, one must distance oneself from Aristotelean philosophy. Then they explain the nature of this kind of motion, and finally conclude that vortex is in fact a function that preserves the integration of the one and the plural. This is the same idea that Greek philosophy studied in different ways and considered it as the eternal and pre-eternal motion of the world, the survival of which depends on such a motion. Empedocles highlighted this point by posing the concept of δίνղ. Manuscript profile

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103 - Role of Moral Character in Responsibility in Aristotle and Thomas Aquinas
Rahim Nobahar Mansooreh Ghanbarian Banooee

20.1001.1.20089589.1402.14.1.2.2

Aristotle’s theory of moral responsibility, as a pioneer theory of ethics of virtue, presents a new approach to responsibility because of its particular attention to moral conduct. Aquinas, a follower of Aristotle, has provided a new interpretation of moral responsibili More

Aristotle’s theory of moral responsibility, as a pioneer theory of ethics of virtue, presents a new approach to responsibility because of its particular attention to moral conduct. Aquinas, a follower of Aristotle, has provided a new interpretation of moral responsibility with an emphasis on character and a focus on completely voluntary human acts and the role of apriori reflection on act. In the views of these two philosophers, moral agent is an agent who possesses knowledge, personality vice, and the ability to perform completely voluntary acts. Accordingly, children and animals are never subjected to moral evaluations because they lack such moral capacities and characters. Aristotle and Aquinas believe that the realm of moral agents, in addition to evil and virtuous people, includes restrained and non-restrained ones. Following a descriptive-analytic method, the present paper investigates the conditions under which the acts of moral agents are subjected to ethical evaluations in the views of Aristotle and Aquinas. Based on the findings of this study, those acts that become the subjects of moral responsibility must be done voluntarily based on the moral character of the agent as a non-accidental stimulus for act, even if they do not originate in deliberation and are not based on prior decision making. This is because sudden acts also originate in certain sources and function as clear references for moral evaluations. Manuscript profile

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104 - Development of Theodicy in Kant’s Early and Late Critical Philosophy
Farah Ramin Zahra Farzanegan

20.1001.1.20089589.1402.14.1.4.4

Generally speaking, Kant’s academic life is divided into two pre-critical and post-critical periods. Some researchers have explored the historical development and evolution of his philosophical thoughts and divided the critical period into two parts as well. An explanat More

Generally speaking, Kant’s academic life is divided into two pre-critical and post-critical periods. Some researchers have explored the historical development and evolution of his philosophical thoughts and divided the critical period into two parts as well. An explanation of Kant’s view of the problem of evil, given the difference in the subtle view that is witnessed in his works published in the early and late critical period, portrays the process of the formation of his philosophical structure in this regard. Related studies in this field reveal his gradual distance from the theoretical knowledge of God and, thus, his theological response to the problem of evil, which reached its culmination towards the end of the critical period. The principle of “freedom”, which is one of the postulates of ethics in Kant’s critical thoughts, is the axis of the justification of moral evil in his works, particularly during the later critical period. Following a descriptive-analytic method, the present study investigates Kant’s view of the problem of evil during two critical periods. In the early critical period, he confirmed the theory of the “best possible world”, while equating the concept of “perfection” with the concept of “reality” therein. However, in the late critical period, he moves away from the common definition of “evil and good” and presents a new response to the dilemma of evil through denying the legitimacy of philosophical theodicies. During the critical period, Kant viewed evil as an essential feature of Man and denied the traditional and Stoic interpretation of the temporal and rational origins of evil in human nature. Manuscript profile

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105 - A Critique of East-Oriented and West-Oriented Readings of Suhrawardī’s Illuminationist Philosophy
Ali Babaei

20.1001.1.20089589.1402.14.3.1.5

Suhrawardī’s Illuminationist Philosophy has attracted the attention of both Muslim and Western researchers from different aspects. During the contemporary period, several people and groups have tried to interpret the relationship between Illuminationist Philosophy and e More

Suhrawardī’s Illuminationist Philosophy has attracted the attention of both Muslim and Western researchers from different aspects. During the contemporary period, several people and groups have tried to interpret the relationship between Illuminationist Philosophy and earlier philosophical schools. For instance, two Western researchers, Henry Corbin and John Walbridge, have conducted a number of influential studies in this regard. Through resorting to certain terms, including the “Pythagorean Leavon” and “Khusrawānῑ Leavon”, which Suhrawardī used in his works and following an Orientalist approach, Corbin explains that Suhrawardī’s purpose in developing Illuminationist philosophy is the revival of ancient Iranian philosophy. However, Corbin is not alone in deriving this conclusion; most of the thinkers who have written on Khusrawānῑ wisdom or dealt with Suhrawardī’s philosophy have adopted the same approach. On the other hand, John Walbridge believes that Suhrawardī’s purpose is to revive the pre-Aristotelean or Pythagorean-Platonic philosophy. Walbridge’s efforts in introducing his interpretation leads to some problems that are far from reality and, in a sense, a kind of deviation in interpreting Suhrawardī’s approach. This is the case while a study of the theorems of Illuminationist philosophy, particularly the attention to the meaning of “perennial leaven”, demonstrates that Suhrawardī’s main goal was to develop a new school of philosophy originated in perennial leaven. He believed that all true schools of philosophy are rooted in perennial leaven and maintained that he received the sparkle of this philosophy on a marvelous day directly from the Holy Master of Miracles. There were also some others in Greece, ancient Iran, and some other civilizations who benefitted from this leaven. Here, perennity does refer to the beginning of history. Rather, it refers to an affair beyond time that encompasses all linear historical times. In the same vein, being inspired by perennial leaven does not mean being influenced by history. Therefore, neither the East-oriented nor the West-oriented reading of Suhrawardī’s Illuminationist philosophy is correct. Manuscript profile

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106 - Aristotelean Roots of the Soul’s Corporeal Origination in Mullā Ṣadrā’s View
Hamideh Ansari Hassan Fathi Morteza Shajari

20.1001.1.20089589.1402.14.1.7.7

Philosophers have presented different views about the whatness and truth of the soul based on dualism (immateriality of the soul based on the pre-eternity and origination of the soul before the existence of the body or along with it) or monism (corporeal origination of More

Philosophers have presented different views about the whatness and truth of the soul based on dualism (immateriality of the soul based on the pre-eternity and origination of the soul before the existence of the body or along with it) or monism (corporeal origination of the soul). Mullā Ṣadrā believes that the soul is corporeally originated. The principles of the Transcendent Philosophy, including the trans-substantial motion, the principiality and gradedness of being, and the corporeal origination of the soul, have made it possible to demonstrate corporeal resurrection. Aristotle also believes that the origination of the soul is corporeal. However, the extent to which Mullā Ṣadrā is influenced by Aristotle’s ideas in this regard has never been studied so far. This paper is intended to explain the Aristotelean roots of Mullā Ṣadrā’s discussion of corporeal origination following a comparative-analytic method. The findings of this study indicate that in defining the soul as a “natural and organic body” and, following it, considering the soul as a formal substance and a primary perfection of the body, as well as believing in the unitary synthesis of the body and the soul and the unity of the faculties of the soul, all indicating the corporeal origination of the soul, Mullā Ṣadrā is under the influence of Aristotle. Nevertheless, Aristotle’s approach suffers from some ambiguity because of the existing implicitness in some of his words and not referring to an explicit standpoint regarding the principiality of existence or quiddity, presence of motion in substance, and gradedness of existence. Manuscript profile

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107 - A Critique of the Theory of Transmigration and Shahrzūrī’s Demonstrative Arguments Based on Ibn Sīnā’s Principles
Mahmud Saidiy

20.1001.1.20089589.1402.14.2.5.7

The theory of the transmigration of the soul is one of the oldest views that has been propounded in the history of thought in order to explain the quality of reward or punishment of human beings and the nature of the eternity of the human soul. Shahrzūrī is one of the m More

The theory of the transmigration of the soul is one of the oldest views that has been propounded in the history of thought in order to explain the quality of reward or punishment of human beings and the nature of the eternity of the human soul. Shahrzūrī is one of the most prominent Illuminationist philosophers, who has presented a coherent theory for the demonstration of ascending and descending transmigration. He has initially criticized Ibn Sīnā’s arguments on refuting the theory of transmigration and, then, provides some reasons to prove it. The present study demonstrates that Shahrzūrī’s criticisms of Ibn Sīnā’s arguments are wrong because, given the capability of the body, the active intellect grants the soul to the body. To prevent the soul’s lingering for doing acts, there must be a temporal concurrence and equality between the numbers of previous and new between-body states of the soul. Shahrzūrī’s arguments for proving the theory of transmigration are defective because the problems of the inhibition of the gathering of two souls in a body and the lack of concurrence and equality between the previous body of the soul and its next body still remain to be solved. Manuscript profile

Open Access Article

108 - A Study of Comparative History of Philosophy: With an Emphasis on Friedrich Schlegel’s View
Reza Gandomi Nasrabadi

20.1001.1.20089589.1402.14.3.2.6

One of the approaches in comparative philosophy is comparison based on the classification of philosophical systems, which dates back to Aristotle’s time. In the first decade of the 19th century, Gérando and Schlegel introduced this kind of comparative philosophy with a More

One of the approaches in comparative philosophy is comparison based on the classification of philosophical systems, which dates back to Aristotle’s time. In the first decade of the 19th century, Gérando and Schlegel introduced this kind of comparative philosophy with a focus on the typology of philosophical systems and their comparative analysis under the title of comparative history of philosophy. Typology allows thinkers to free themselves from the limitations of a specific philosophical system and grants them the opportunity to evaluate the contributions of various philosophers. The comparative history of philosophy is based on the principle that, in order to determine the place and share of each philosopher in the history of philosophy, one cannot judge them based on their valid and correct arguments. Rather, their contributions in the history of philosophy must be compared with the contributions and roles of other philosophers in various periods and philosophical schools and traditions. Therefore, the purpose of the comparative history of philosophy is not to provide a chronological list of different philosophical systems; rather, it aims to review all earlier schools of philosophy and explain the relationships among them. Accordingly, the quality of the emergence of a philosophical system from the core of another one and its extension and annihilation are investigated in a process of comparative analysis. Instead of relying on earlier principles, the comparative history of philosophy considers the outcomes and practical effects of various philosophies in the realms of science, art, and government as the basis for evaluation. In this paper, while exploring Schlegel’s intercultural approach to the comparative history of philosophy, its similarities to and differences from comparative philosophy in its new sense (Paul Masson-Oursel’s view) and the comparative history of world philosophy (with an emphasis on Sharfstein’s A Comparative History of World Philosophy) will be examined. Manuscript profile

Open Access Article

109 - Historical Roots of the Doctrine of the Trans-Substantial Motion
Mansour Imanpour

20.1001.1.20089589.1402.14.3.4.8

Undoubtedly, the interpretation of the truth of the world of nature is one of the basic discussions in philosophia prima and has always been debated since the rise of philosophy and gnosis. Based on the doctrine of trans-substantial motion, Mullā Ṣadrā has equated the w More

Undoubtedly, the interpretation of the truth of the world of nature is one of the basic discussions in philosophia prima and has always been debated since the rise of philosophy and gnosis. Based on the doctrine of trans-substantial motion, Mullā Ṣadrā has equated the whole world of nature with motion and becoming and confirmed its essential motion towards the world of stability. However, the question is whether this theory is a completely innovative one, or it has a historical background. Following a descriptive-analytic approach, the present paper demonstrates that this problem is not unprecedented, and some philosophers in ancient Greece believed in the motion of all existents in the world of nature. In the Islamic world, some philosophers only believed in motion in the realm of accidents and tried to reject the theory of the trans-substantial motion based on some discussions and arguments. However, some others view the world from a different angle and, following a gnostic view and through resorting to intuitive experiences, considered the whole beings to be capable of renewal. Based on this available treasure of knowledge and under its influence, Mullā Ṣadrā revised and reintroduced the doctrine of the trans-substantial motion in conformity with his own ontological philosophy. Next, by proving it and placing it at the foundation of several philosophical problems, he presented a new theory following a macro-approach, based on which he divided being into two fixed and changing parts. Then, relying on this division, he arrived at certain conclusions regarding some general affairs and theological problems. Manuscript profile

Open Access Article

110 - The Relationship between Daemon in Ancient Greek and Div in Zoroastrian Wisdom and Jinn in Islamic Philosophy
Hojjatullah Askarizadeh

20.1001.1.20089589.1402.14.3.5.9

There are some shared truths regarding daemon in ancient Greek, div in Zoroastrian wisdom, and jinn in Islamic theology. Although daemon is in some cases distinguished from theos in Greek philosophy, it is usually confused with other divine existents, thus creating the More

There are some shared truths regarding daemon in ancient Greek, div in Zoroastrian wisdom, and jinn in Islamic theology. Although daemon is in some cases distinguished from theos in Greek philosophy, it is usually confused with other divine existents, thus creating the challenge of how ancient Greek gods gradually turned into div and Satan during the Christian period and after that. In the same vein, there is not only a distinction but also total contrast and opposition between Divine gods and divs in Zoroastrian wisdom. The former is divine and good while the latter is evil and satanic. There is also an existent called “jinn” in Islamic worldview and teachings that is neither angel-like nor of an absolute evil nature. On the one hand, it is close to the world of immateriality and angels and can perform supernatural and superhuman acts; on the other hand, it is the origin of evil and wicked affairs in several cases, thus deserving the name of Satan. However, it is possible to explain the challenges related to ancient Greek daemons more accurately based on Muslim philosophers’ approach in classifying spiritual and immaterial existents and the distinctions that they make among angels, good jinns, and evils. This endeavor plays an important role in understanding the roots of the ideas held in ancient schools of philosophy, particularly in ancient Greece, so that one can clarify the role of daemons in ancient Greece more effectively. Manuscript profile

List of articles (by subject) Geneology of philosophical schools and Ideas